A baseline study on the distribution of fluoride in drinking water and its health risk assessment in Industrial areas of Sivakasi, India
Article Main
Abstract
Sivakasi, popularly known as "Little Japan," is a town in the southern region of Tamil Nadu. The study area has a semi-arid tropical monsoon climate. The inhabitants depend heavily on groundwater, which is used extensively for irrigation, drinking, and domestic. The present research aimed to evaluate groundwater quality in Sivakasi, focusing on fluoride levels and major ions, providing essential information on the non-carcinogenic risks posed to residents, particularly adults, and the suitability of water for both drinking and agriculture. Fluoride concentration and the most important cations and anions were analyzed in 32 groundwater samples. The major cations and anions present in field samples are in the order of abundance: Cl> SO4> HCO3> Na > Mg >Ca> K. For drinking purposes, groundwater quality varies from moderate to poor, and over 70% of groundwater tests are out of condition for agricultural water supply. Fluoride levels in the samples from the study area ranged from 0.00 to 2.60 mg/l, with an average value of 1.60 mg/l. The hazardous Quotient (HQ) value for infants ranged from 0.00 E+00 to 1.69 E+00, children from 0.00 E+00 to 1.80 E+00, and for adults from 0.00E+00 to 1.88E+00. Additionally, the adults were more susceptible to non-carcinogenic threats than infants and children. This study on groundwater quality in Sivakasi highlights risks to health from excessive fluoride levels, particularly for adults, making it important for disaster mitigation. Understanding the non-carcinogenic hazards of contaminated water can drive disaster preparedness actions and resource allocation, emphasizing the need for secure water sources and resilient water management methods in the semiarid region.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Hazardous Quotient, Risk Assessment, Fluoride, Drinking water, Sivakasi
References
Adimalla, N. (2020). Controlling factors and mechanism of groundwater quality variation in semiarid region of South India: an approach of water quality index (WQI) and health risk assessment (HRA). Environ Geochem Health, 42(6), 1725-1752.
Adimalla, N. & Qian, H. (2019). Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 176, 153-161.
Adimalla, N. & Wu, J. (2019). Groundwater quality and associated health risks in a semi-arid region of south India: Implication to sustainable groundwater management. Hum Ecol Risk Assess., 25(1-2), 191-216.
Adimalla, N. &Venkatayogi, S. J. E. E. S. (2017). Mechanism of fluoride enrichment in groundwater of hard rock aquifers in Medak, Telangana State, South India. Environ. Earth Sci, 76, 1-10.
Adimalla, N., Li, P. &Venkatayogi, S. (2018). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and integrated interpretation with water quality index studies. Environ. Process., 5(2), 363-383.
Amouei, A. I., Mahvi, A. H., Mohammadi, A. A., Asgharnia, H. A., Fallah, S. H. &Khafajeh, A. A. (2012). Fluoride concentration in potable groundwater in rural areas of Khaf city, RazaviKhorasan Province, northeastern Iran. Int J OccupEnvon.The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 3(4), 201-203.
Azhdarpoor, A., Radfard, M., Pakdel, M., Abbasnia, A., Badeenezhad, A., Mohammadi, A. A. &Yousefi, M. (2019). Assessing fluoride and nitrate contaminants in drinking water resources and their health risk assessment in a semiarid region of southwest Iran. Desalin. Water Treat., 149, 43-51.
APHA (2012). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, twenty second ed., p. 1496.
APHA, AWWA, WEF (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (23rd ed.). American Public Health Association(APHA).
Binbin, W., Baoshan, Z., Hongying, W., Yakun, P.&Yuehua, T. (2005). Dental caries in fluorine exposure areas in China. Environ Geochem Health. 27(4), 285-288.
Brown, R. M., Mccleiland, N. J., Deiniger, R. A. & O’Connor, M. F. (1972). Water quality index-crossing the physical barrier,(Jenkis, SH, ed.) Proc. In Intl. Conf. on water poll. Res. Jerusalem (Vol. 6, pp. 787-797).
Carrillo-Rivera, J. J., Cardona, A. & Edmunds, W. M. (2002). Use of abstraction regime and knowledge of hydrogeological conditions to control high-fluoride concentration in abstracted groundwater: San Luis Potosı basin, Mexico. J. Hydrol., 261(1-4), 24-47.
Chen, J., Wu, H. & Qian, H. (2016). Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated health risk for the rural communities in an agricultural area of Ningxia, northwest China. Expos. Health, 8(3), 349-359.
Chen, Z., Liu, W. & Su, G. (1990). A study of the effects of fluoride on foetal tissue. Chinese Journal of Endemiology, 9, 345-6.
Chinoy, N. J. (1991). Effects of fluoride on physiology of animals and human beings. Indian J Environ Toxicol, 1(1), 17-32.
Chidambaram, S., Bala Krishna Prasad, M., Manivannan, R., Karmegam, U., Singaraja, C., Anandhan, P.& Manikandan, S. (2013). Environmental hydrogeochemistry and genesis of fluoride in groundwaters of Dindigul district, Tamilnadu (India). Environ. Earth Sci. 68, 333-342.
Collins, A. G. (1961). Methods of Analyzing Oilfield Waters: Iodides, Bromides, Alkalinity, Acidity, Borate Boron, Total Boron, Organic Boron, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Fluorides, and Arsenic (Vol. 5819). US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Davis, S. N.&DeWiest, R. J. M. (1966). Hydrogeology John Wiley Sons New York NY.
Deshmukh, A. N. (1995). Valadaskar PM, Malpe DB. Fluoride in environment: a review. Gondwana Geol. Mag, 9, 1-20.
Duvva, L. K., Panga, K. K., Dhakate, R.& Himabindu, V. (2022). Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride toxicity in groundwater contamination in the semi-arid area of Medchal, South India. Appl. Water Sci, 12(1), 11.
Dharmaratne, R. W. (2015). Fluoride in drinking water and diet: the causative factor of chronic kidney diseases in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 20(4), 237-242.
Edjah, A. K. M., Banoeng-Yakubo, B., Ewusi, A., Sakyi-Yeboah, E., Saka, D., Turetta, C., ... &Chegbeleh, L. P. (2023). Assessment of groundwater quantity, quality, and associated health risk of the Tano river basin, Acta Geochim, 1-29.
Emenike, C. P., Tenebe, I. T., Omole, D. O., Ngene, B. U., Oniemayin, B. I., Maxwell, O. &Onoka, B. I. (2017). Accessing safe drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and challenges in South–West Nigeria. Sustainable cities and society, 30, 263-272.
Ekbal, E., & Khan, T. A. (2022). Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater quality in parts of amroha district, western Uttar Pradesh, India. HydroResearch, 5, 54-70.
Faraji, H., Mohammadi, A. A., Akbari-Adergani, B., Saatloo, N. V., Lashkarboloki, G. &Mahvi, A. H. (2014). Correlation between fluoride in drinking Water and its levels in breast milk in Golestan Province, Northern Iran. Iran. J. Public Health, 43(12), 1664.
Freeze, R. A., & Cherry, J. A. (1979). Groundwater prentice. Englewood Cliffs, Englewood Cliffs.
Gizaw, B. (1996). The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, East African Rift system. J. African Earth Sci. 22(4), 391-402.
Gu, X., Xiao, Y., Yin, S., Hao, Q., Liu, H., Hao, Z.& Yan, H. (2018). Hydrogeochemical characterization and quality assessment of groundwater in a long-term reclaimed water irrigation area, North China Plain. Water, 10(9), 1209.
Hoenderop, J. G., Nilius, B. &Bindels, R. J. (2005). Calcium absorption across epithelia. Physiol. Rev. 85(1), 373-422.
Sarma, G. K. & Rashid, M. H. (2018). Synthesis of Mg/Al layered double hydroxides for adsorptive removal of fluoride from water: A mechanistic and kinetic study. J. Chem. Eng. Data, 63(8), 2957-2965.
Sarma, M., Nodehi, R. N., Alimohammadi, M. &Mahvi, A. H. (2009). A survey of nitrate and fluoride in water distribution networks of Tabas, Iran.World Appl. Sci. J., 7(12), 1516-1520.
Harris, D. C. (2010). Quantitative chemical analysis. Macmillan.
Karanth KR. (1987)Groundwater assessment, development and management. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India:.
Kelly WP.(1957) Adsorbed sodium cation exchange capacity and %age sodium sorption in alkali soils. Science. 84:473–477.
Khan, R.&Jhariya, D. C. (2017). Groundwater quality assessment for drinking purpose in Raipur city, Chhattisgarh using water quality index and geographic information system. J. Geol. Soc. India, 90(1), 69-76.
LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and Alkali soils. USDA Handbook, Washington, DC.
Li, P., Karunanidhi, D., Subramani, T.&Srinivasamoorthy, K. (2021). Sources and consequences of groundwater contamination. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 80, 1-10.
Nur, T., Loganathan, P. Nguyen, T. C., Vigneswaran, S., Singh, G., & Kandasamy, J. (2014). Batch and column adsorption and desorption of fluoride using hydrous ferric oxide: Solution chemistry and modeling. Chem. Eng. J. 247, 93-102.
Paliwal KV. (1972) Irrigation with Saline Water. Monogram No. 2 (New Series). Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. p198.
Prakash, K., Mohanty, T., Pati, J. K., Singh, S.&Chaubey, K. (2017). Morphotectonics of the Jamini River basin, BundelkhandCraton, Central India; using remote sensing and GIS technique. Appl. Water Sci. 7(7), 3767-3782.
Potasznik, A.& Szymczyk, S. (2015). Magnesium and calcium concentrations in the surface water and bottom deposits of a river-lake system.J. Elem.20(3).
Qasemi, M., Afsharnia, M., Farhang, M., Ghaderpoori, M., Karimi, A., Abbasi, H. & Zarei, A. J. D. W. T. (2019). Spatial distribution of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in residents living in Western Khorasan Razavi, Iran. Desalin Water Treat, 170, 176-186.
Ramya Priya, R. &Elango, L. (2018). Evaluation of geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on spatio-temporal variation in quality of surface water and groundwater along Cauvery River, India. Environ. Earth Sci. 77(1), 1-17.
Ramyapriya Ramesh et.al.(2017) Evaluation of geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on spatio‑temporal variation in quality of surface water and groundwater along Cauvery River, India Environ. Earth Sci:2017. doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-7176-6.
Raju, N. J. (2017). Prevalence of fluorosis in the fluoride enriched groundwater in semi-arid parts of eastern India: Geochemistry and health implications. Quat. Int., 443, 265-278.
Radfarda, M., A. Gholizadehc, A. Azhdarpoorb, A. Badeenezhada, A.A. Mohammadid & M. Yousefie (2019). Health risk assessment to fluoride and nitrate in drinking water of rural residents living in the bardaskan city, arid region, southeastern iran. Water Treat, 145: 249-256.
Saleh, H. N., Panahande, M., Yousefi, M., Asghari, F. B., Oliveri Conti, G., Talaee, E. & Mohammadi, A. A. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater wells in Neyshabur Plain, Iran. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 190(1), 251-261.
Saxena, V., &Ahmed, S. (2001). Dissolution of fluoride in groundwater: a water-rock interaction study. Environ. Geol.40(9), 1084-1087.
Shahjad Ali, Hamid Ali, ManizhePakdel, SaharGhaleAskari, Ali AkbarMohammadi, ShahabaldinRezania.(2021) Spatial analysis and probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to fluoride in drinking water using GIS and Monte Carlo simulation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16075-8.
Sudhakar Gummadi (2015) . Application of nemerow's pollution index (NPI) for groundwater quality assessment of bapatlamandal west region, coastal Andhra Pradesh,Indian J. Appl. Res.:. Vol. 4, Issue 4.
Susheela, A. K. (1984). Epidemiology and control of fluorosis in India. J Nutr Found India, 1-3.
Siddha, S. & Sahu, P. (2020). Status of seawater intrusion in coastal aquifer of Gujarat, India: a review. SN Appl. Sci, 2, 1-20.
Srivastava, S. & Flora, S. J. S. (2020). Fluoride in drinking water and skeletal fluorosis: a review of the global impact. Curr. Environ. Health Rep, 7, 140-146.
Sunitha, V., Reddy, Y. S., Suvarna, B. & Reddy, B. M. (2022). Human health risk assessment (HHRA) of fluoride and nitrate using pollution index of groundwater (PIG) in and around hard rock terrain of Cuddapah, AP South India. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol, 4, 113-123.
Pradhan, R. M., & Biswal, T. K. (2018). Fluoride in groundwater: a case study in Precambrian terranes of Ambaji region, North Gujarat, India. Proceedings of theInternational Association of Hydrological Sciences, 379, 351-356.
Thapa, R., Gupta, S., Reddy, D. V.& Kaur, H. (2017). An evaluation of irrigation water suitability in the Dwarka river basin through the use of GIS-based modelling. Environ. Earth Sci. 76(14), 1-12.
USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), Baseline Human Health Risk Assessment Vasquez Boulevard and I-70 Superfund Site. Denver CO: 2001. http://www. epa.gov/region8/super fund/sites/VB-170-Risk.pdf, Accessed date: 20 January 2011.
USEPA,Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual: 2004.(Part E). http://www.epa.gov/oswer/riskassessment/ragse/pdf/introduction.pdf.
WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First Addendum. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland: 2017.
World Health Organization. (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.
Wilcox LV. (1948). The Quality of Water for Irrigation Use, vol 40. US Department of Agriculture Technology Bulletin 962, Washington, DC, USA: 1948.
Wu, J.& Sun, Z. (2016). Evaluation of shallow groundwater contamination and associated human health risk in an alluvial plain impacted by agricultural and industrial activities, mid-west China. Expos. Health, 8(3), 311-329.
Zhang, Y. Wu, J., & Xu, B. (2018). Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrogen pollution in Jinghui canal irrigation area of the loess region, northwest China. Environ. Earth Sci, 77(7), 1-12.
Zhang, Y.,Yang, M., & Huang, X. (2003). Arsenic (V) removal with a Ce (IV)-doped iron oxide adsorbent. Chemosphere, 51(9), 945-952.
Adimalla, N. & Qian, H. (2019). Groundwater quality evaluation using water quality index (WQI) for drinking purposes and human health risk (HHR) assessment in an agricultural region of Nanganur, south India. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf., 176, 153-161.
Adimalla, N. & Wu, J. (2019). Groundwater quality and associated health risks in a semi-arid region of south India: Implication to sustainable groundwater management. Hum Ecol Risk Assess., 25(1-2), 191-216.
Adimalla, N. &Venkatayogi, S. J. E. E. S. (2017). Mechanism of fluoride enrichment in groundwater of hard rock aquifers in Medak, Telangana State, South India. Environ. Earth Sci, 76, 1-10.
Adimalla, N., Li, P. &Venkatayogi, S. (2018). Hydrogeochemical evaluation of groundwater quality for drinking and irrigation purposes and integrated interpretation with water quality index studies. Environ. Process., 5(2), 363-383.
Amouei, A. I., Mahvi, A. H., Mohammadi, A. A., Asgharnia, H. A., Fallah, S. H. &Khafajeh, A. A. (2012). Fluoride concentration in potable groundwater in rural areas of Khaf city, RazaviKhorasan Province, northeastern Iran. Int J OccupEnvon.The International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 3(4), 201-203.
Azhdarpoor, A., Radfard, M., Pakdel, M., Abbasnia, A., Badeenezhad, A., Mohammadi, A. A. &Yousefi, M. (2019). Assessing fluoride and nitrate contaminants in drinking water resources and their health risk assessment in a semiarid region of southwest Iran. Desalin. Water Treat., 149, 43-51.
APHA (2012). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, twenty second ed., p. 1496.
APHA, AWWA, WEF (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (23rd ed.). American Public Health Association(APHA).
Binbin, W., Baoshan, Z., Hongying, W., Yakun, P.&Yuehua, T. (2005). Dental caries in fluorine exposure areas in China. Environ Geochem Health. 27(4), 285-288.
Brown, R. M., Mccleiland, N. J., Deiniger, R. A. & O’Connor, M. F. (1972). Water quality index-crossing the physical barrier,(Jenkis, SH, ed.) Proc. In Intl. Conf. on water poll. Res. Jerusalem (Vol. 6, pp. 787-797).
Carrillo-Rivera, J. J., Cardona, A. & Edmunds, W. M. (2002). Use of abstraction regime and knowledge of hydrogeological conditions to control high-fluoride concentration in abstracted groundwater: San Luis Potosı basin, Mexico. J. Hydrol., 261(1-4), 24-47.
Chen, J., Wu, H. & Qian, H. (2016). Groundwater nitrate contamination and associated health risk for the rural communities in an agricultural area of Ningxia, northwest China. Expos. Health, 8(3), 349-359.
Chen, Z., Liu, W. & Su, G. (1990). A study of the effects of fluoride on foetal tissue. Chinese Journal of Endemiology, 9, 345-6.
Chinoy, N. J. (1991). Effects of fluoride on physiology of animals and human beings. Indian J Environ Toxicol, 1(1), 17-32.
Chidambaram, S., Bala Krishna Prasad, M., Manivannan, R., Karmegam, U., Singaraja, C., Anandhan, P.& Manikandan, S. (2013). Environmental hydrogeochemistry and genesis of fluoride in groundwaters of Dindigul district, Tamilnadu (India). Environ. Earth Sci. 68, 333-342.
Collins, A. G. (1961). Methods of Analyzing Oilfield Waters: Iodides, Bromides, Alkalinity, Acidity, Borate Boron, Total Boron, Organic Boron, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Iron, Fluorides, and Arsenic (Vol. 5819). US Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines.
Davis, S. N.&DeWiest, R. J. M. (1966). Hydrogeology John Wiley Sons New York NY.
Deshmukh, A. N. (1995). Valadaskar PM, Malpe DB. Fluoride in environment: a review. Gondwana Geol. Mag, 9, 1-20.
Duvva, L. K., Panga, K. K., Dhakate, R.& Himabindu, V. (2022). Health risk assessment of nitrate and fluoride toxicity in groundwater contamination in the semi-arid area of Medchal, South India. Appl. Water Sci, 12(1), 11.
Dharmaratne, R. W. (2015). Fluoride in drinking water and diet: the causative factor of chronic kidney diseases in the North Central Province of Sri Lanka. Environ. Health Prev. Med. 20(4), 237-242.
Edjah, A. K. M., Banoeng-Yakubo, B., Ewusi, A., Sakyi-Yeboah, E., Saka, D., Turetta, C., ... &Chegbeleh, L. P. (2023). Assessment of groundwater quantity, quality, and associated health risk of the Tano river basin, Acta Geochim, 1-29.
Emenike, C. P., Tenebe, I. T., Omole, D. O., Ngene, B. U., Oniemayin, B. I., Maxwell, O. &Onoka, B. I. (2017). Accessing safe drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and challenges in South–West Nigeria. Sustainable cities and society, 30, 263-272.
Ekbal, E., & Khan, T. A. (2022). Hydrogeochemical characterization of groundwater quality in parts of amroha district, western Uttar Pradesh, India. HydroResearch, 5, 54-70.
Faraji, H., Mohammadi, A. A., Akbari-Adergani, B., Saatloo, N. V., Lashkarboloki, G. &Mahvi, A. H. (2014). Correlation between fluoride in drinking Water and its levels in breast milk in Golestan Province, Northern Iran. Iran. J. Public Health, 43(12), 1664.
Freeze, R. A., & Cherry, J. A. (1979). Groundwater prentice. Englewood Cliffs, Englewood Cliffs.
Gizaw, B. (1996). The origin of high bicarbonate and fluoride concentrations in waters of the Main Ethiopian Rift Valley, East African Rift system. J. African Earth Sci. 22(4), 391-402.
Gu, X., Xiao, Y., Yin, S., Hao, Q., Liu, H., Hao, Z.& Yan, H. (2018). Hydrogeochemical characterization and quality assessment of groundwater in a long-term reclaimed water irrigation area, North China Plain. Water, 10(9), 1209.
Hoenderop, J. G., Nilius, B. &Bindels, R. J. (2005). Calcium absorption across epithelia. Physiol. Rev. 85(1), 373-422.
Sarma, G. K. & Rashid, M. H. (2018). Synthesis of Mg/Al layered double hydroxides for adsorptive removal of fluoride from water: A mechanistic and kinetic study. J. Chem. Eng. Data, 63(8), 2957-2965.
Sarma, M., Nodehi, R. N., Alimohammadi, M. &Mahvi, A. H. (2009). A survey of nitrate and fluoride in water distribution networks of Tabas, Iran.World Appl. Sci. J., 7(12), 1516-1520.
Harris, D. C. (2010). Quantitative chemical analysis. Macmillan.
Karanth KR. (1987)Groundwater assessment, development and management. Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, India:.
Kelly WP.(1957) Adsorbed sodium cation exchange capacity and %age sodium sorption in alkali soils. Science. 84:473–477.
Khan, R.&Jhariya, D. C. (2017). Groundwater quality assessment for drinking purpose in Raipur city, Chhattisgarh using water quality index and geographic information system. J. Geol. Soc. India, 90(1), 69-76.
LA (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and Alkali soils. USDA Handbook, Washington, DC.
Li, P., Karunanidhi, D., Subramani, T.&Srinivasamoorthy, K. (2021). Sources and consequences of groundwater contamination. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 80, 1-10.
Nur, T., Loganathan, P. Nguyen, T. C., Vigneswaran, S., Singh, G., & Kandasamy, J. (2014). Batch and column adsorption and desorption of fluoride using hydrous ferric oxide: Solution chemistry and modeling. Chem. Eng. J. 247, 93-102.
Paliwal KV. (1972) Irrigation with Saline Water. Monogram No. 2 (New Series). Water Technology Centre, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. p198.
Prakash, K., Mohanty, T., Pati, J. K., Singh, S.&Chaubey, K. (2017). Morphotectonics of the Jamini River basin, BundelkhandCraton, Central India; using remote sensing and GIS technique. Appl. Water Sci. 7(7), 3767-3782.
Potasznik, A.& Szymczyk, S. (2015). Magnesium and calcium concentrations in the surface water and bottom deposits of a river-lake system.J. Elem.20(3).
Qasemi, M., Afsharnia, M., Farhang, M., Ghaderpoori, M., Karimi, A., Abbasi, H. & Zarei, A. J. D. W. T. (2019). Spatial distribution of fluoride and nitrate in groundwater and its associated human health risk assessment in residents living in Western Khorasan Razavi, Iran. Desalin Water Treat, 170, 176-186.
Ramya Priya, R. &Elango, L. (2018). Evaluation of geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on spatio-temporal variation in quality of surface water and groundwater along Cauvery River, India. Environ. Earth Sci. 77(1), 1-17.
Ramyapriya Ramesh et.al.(2017) Evaluation of geogenic and anthropogenic impacts on spatio‑temporal variation in quality of surface water and groundwater along Cauvery River, India Environ. Earth Sci:2017. doi.org/10.1007/s12665-017-7176-6.
Raju, N. J. (2017). Prevalence of fluorosis in the fluoride enriched groundwater in semi-arid parts of eastern India: Geochemistry and health implications. Quat. Int., 443, 265-278.
Radfarda, M., A. Gholizadehc, A. Azhdarpoorb, A. Badeenezhada, A.A. Mohammadid & M. Yousefie (2019). Health risk assessment to fluoride and nitrate in drinking water of rural residents living in the bardaskan city, arid region, southeastern iran. Water Treat, 145: 249-256.
Saleh, H. N., Panahande, M., Yousefi, M., Asghari, F. B., Oliveri Conti, G., Talaee, E. & Mohammadi, A. A. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk assessment of heavy metals in groundwater wells in Neyshabur Plain, Iran. Biol. Trace Elem. Res. 190(1), 251-261.
Saxena, V., &Ahmed, S. (2001). Dissolution of fluoride in groundwater: a water-rock interaction study. Environ. Geol.40(9), 1084-1087.
Shahjad Ali, Hamid Ali, ManizhePakdel, SaharGhaleAskari, Ali AkbarMohammadi, ShahabaldinRezania.(2021) Spatial analysis and probabilistic risk assessment of exposure to fluoride in drinking water using GIS and Monte Carlo simulation. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16075-8.
Sudhakar Gummadi (2015) . Application of nemerow's pollution index (NPI) for groundwater quality assessment of bapatlamandal west region, coastal Andhra Pradesh,Indian J. Appl. Res.:. Vol. 4, Issue 4.
Susheela, A. K. (1984). Epidemiology and control of fluorosis in India. J Nutr Found India, 1-3.
Siddha, S. & Sahu, P. (2020). Status of seawater intrusion in coastal aquifer of Gujarat, India: a review. SN Appl. Sci, 2, 1-20.
Srivastava, S. & Flora, S. J. S. (2020). Fluoride in drinking water and skeletal fluorosis: a review of the global impact. Curr. Environ. Health Rep, 7, 140-146.
Sunitha, V., Reddy, Y. S., Suvarna, B. & Reddy, B. M. (2022). Human health risk assessment (HHRA) of fluoride and nitrate using pollution index of groundwater (PIG) in and around hard rock terrain of Cuddapah, AP South India. Environ. Chem. Ecotoxicol, 4, 113-123.
Pradhan, R. M., & Biswal, T. K. (2018). Fluoride in groundwater: a case study in Precambrian terranes of Ambaji region, North Gujarat, India. Proceedings of theInternational Association of Hydrological Sciences, 379, 351-356.
Thapa, R., Gupta, S., Reddy, D. V.& Kaur, H. (2017). An evaluation of irrigation water suitability in the Dwarka river basin through the use of GIS-based modelling. Environ. Earth Sci. 76(14), 1-12.
USEPA (US Environmental Protection Agency), Baseline Human Health Risk Assessment Vasquez Boulevard and I-70 Superfund Site. Denver CO: 2001. http://www. epa.gov/region8/super fund/sites/VB-170-Risk.pdf, Accessed date: 20 January 2011.
USEPA,Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund Volume I: Human Health Evaluation Manual: 2004.(Part E). http://www.epa.gov/oswer/riskassessment/ragse/pdf/introduction.pdf.
WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality: Fourth Edition Incorporating the First Addendum. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland: 2017.
World Health Organization. (2004). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.
Wilcox LV. (1948). The Quality of Water for Irrigation Use, vol 40. US Department of Agriculture Technology Bulletin 962, Washington, DC, USA: 1948.
Wu, J.& Sun, Z. (2016). Evaluation of shallow groundwater contamination and associated human health risk in an alluvial plain impacted by agricultural and industrial activities, mid-west China. Expos. Health, 8(3), 311-329.
Zhang, Y. Wu, J., & Xu, B. (2018). Human health risk assessment of groundwater nitrogen pollution in Jinghui canal irrigation area of the loess region, northwest China. Environ. Earth Sci, 77(7), 1-12.
Zhang, Y.,Yang, M., & Huang, X. (2003). Arsenic (V) removal with a Ce (IV)-doped iron oxide adsorbent. Chemosphere, 51(9), 945-952.
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A baseline study on the distribution of fluoride in drinking water and its health risk assessment in Industrial areas of Sivakasi, India. (2024). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 16(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v16i1.5213
