Activity of metalloproteases and serine proteases in rat liver after Leiurus macroctenus envenomation
Article Main
Abstract
Scorpion stings can be life-threatening because their venoms consist of a wide range of toxins, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Also, scorpion envenomation can increase levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which increases the proteolytic destruction of tissues by the venom. The research aims at assessing both the proteolysis levels (including serine proteases and metalloproteases’ contributions to the total proteolytic activity) and MMPs and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP-1) levels in rat liver as a response to L. macroctenus envenomation, since studies of this venom effects on tissue proteolytic activity and MMP levels have not yet been conducted. The total proteolysis levels (including the metalloproteases and serine proteases’ contributions to the total proteolytic activity) and changes in matrix metalloproteases and TIMP-1 levels were analyzed using the caseinolytic activity examination and a standard enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Results revealed that envenomation led to a significant increase in proteolytic activity in rat liver, with a peak at 24 hours after venom injection (1.8 times). According to the results obtained, it was shown that the presence of phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) revealed a greater decrement in the overall proteolytic activity, suggesting that serine proteases contributed slightly more to the total caseinolytic capacity of the homogenate than metalloproteinases (5, 10). The levels of MMP and TIMP-1 were increased in the studied organ of rats, which, in turn, may lead to the development of further pathological consequences due to the combined, uncontrolled activity of serine proteases and metalloproteinases.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Envenomation, Leiurus macroctenus, Liver, Matrix metalloproteases, Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteases, Total proteolytic activity
References
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Bo¨ckelman, C., Beilmann-Lehtonen, I., Kaprio T., Koskensalo, S., Tervahartiala, T., Mustonen, H., Stenman, U.-H., Sorsa, T. & Haglund, C. (2018). Serum MMP-8 and TIMP-1 predict prognosis in colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer, 18 (1), 679. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-018-4589-x
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Gunas, V., Maievskyi, O., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Savchuk, O., Shchypanskyi, S. & Gunas, I. (2023). The activity of metalloproteases and serine proteases in various organs after Leiurus macroctenus envenomation. J. Toxicol., 2023, 5262729. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/5262729
Gunas, V., Maievskyi, O., Synelnyk, T., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Savchuk, O. & Gunas, I. (2024). Cytokines and their regulators in rat lung following scorpion envenomation. Toxicon X., 8 (22), 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxcx.2024.100198
Gutierrez, J. M. & Rucavado, A. (2000). Snake venom metalloproteinases: their role in the pathogenesis of local tissue damage. Biochimie, 82 (9-10), 841-850. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-9084(00)01163-9
Jalali, A. & Rahim, F. (2014). Epidemiological review of scorpion envenomation in Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 13 (3), 743-756.
Jenkins, T. P., Ahmadi, S., Bittenbinder, M. A., Stewart, T. K., Akgun, D. E., Hale M., Nasrabadi, N. N., Wolff, D. S., Vonk, F. J., Kool, J. & Laustsen, A. H. (2021). Terrestrial venomous animals, the envenomings they cause, and treatment perspectives in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15, (12), e0009880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009880
Haidai, O. S., Dzevulska, I. V., Samborska, I. А. & Shvager О. V. (2025). Differences in the structural organization of liver tissue in experimental rats 1 and 3 hours after administration of Leiurus macroctenus scorpion venom. Reports of Morphology, 31 (3), 62-68. https://doi.org/10.31393/morphology-journal-2025-31(3)-08
Feola, A, Perrone, M. A., Piscopo, A., Casella, F., Pietra, B. D. & Di Mizio, G. (2020). Autopsy findings in case of fatal scorpion sting: a systematic review of the literature. Healthcare (Basel), 8 (3), 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030325
Köse, A., Biricik, S., Bozkurt, S., Cavuşoğlu, C. & Ayrık, C. (2016). Toxic hepatitis and coagulopathy due to scorpion sting. Annals of Clinical Case Reports, 1, 1212.
Kunitz, M. (1947). Crystalline soybean trypsin inhibitor. Journal of General Physiology, 30 (4), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.30.4.291
Kuyvenhoven, J. P., van Hoek, B., Blom, E., van Duijn, W., Hanemaaijer, R., Verheijen, J. H., Lamers, C. B. H. W. & Verspaget, H. W. (2003). Assessment of the clinical significance of serum matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2 and MMP-9 in patients with various chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 89 (4), 718-725.
Lamraoui, A., Adi-Bessalem, S. & Laraba-Djebari, F. (2015). Immunopathologic effects of scorpion venom on hepato-renal tissues: Involvement of lipid derived inflammatory mediators. Exp. Mol. Pathol., 99 (2), 286-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2015.07.013
Li, A., Yu, H., Li, R., Yue Y., Yu, C., Geng, H., Liu, S., Xing, R. & Li, P. (2022). Jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai causes myotoxicity through the metalloprotease component of venom. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 151, 113192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2022
Matkivska, R., Shchypanskyi, S., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Melnyk, V., Falalyeyeva, T. & Savchuk, O. (2024). Proteolytic profile alterations as one of the scorpion’s Leiurus macroctenus envenomation effects on kidneys. Toxicology International, 31 (2), 84-92. https://doi.org/10.18311/ti/2024/v31i2/35384
Menaldo, D. L., Bernardes, C. P., Santos-Filho, N. A., de Moura, A. L. & Fuly, A. L. (2012). Biochemical characterization and comparative analysis of two distinct serine proteases from Bothrops pirajai snake venom. Biochimie, 94, 2545-2558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2012.07.007
Minutti-Zanella, C., Gil-Leyva, E. J. & Vergara, I. (2021). Immunomodulatory properties of molecules from animal venoms. Toxicon, 191, 54-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.018
Naim, A., Pan, Q. & Baig, M. S. (2017). Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in liver diseases. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology, 7 (4), 367-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jceh.2017.09.004
Ozkan, O. & Filazi, A. (2004). The determination of acute lethal dose-50 (LD50) levels of venom in mice, obtained by different methods from scorpions, Androctonus crassicauda (Oliver 1807). Turkiye Parazitol Derg, 28, 50-53.
Patel, S. (2017). A critical review on serine protease: Key immune manipulator and pathology mediator. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr), 45 (6), 579-591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2016.10.011
Reis, M. B., Zoccal, K. F., Gardinassi, L. G. & Faccioli, L. H. (2019). Scorpion envenomation and inflammation: Beyond neurotoxic effects. Toxicon, 167, 174-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.06.219
Santiba´ñez-Lo´pez, C. E., Ontano, A. Z., Harvey, M. S. & Sharma, P. P. (2018). Transcriptomic analysis of pseudoscorpion venom reveals a unique cocktail dominated by enzymes and protease inhibitors. Toxins, 10 (5), 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10050207
Scieuzo, C., Salvia, R., Franco, A., Pezzi, M., Cozzolino, F., Chicca M., Scapoli, C., Vogel H., Monti M., Ferracini C., Pucci P., Alma A. & Falabella P. (2021). An integrated tran- scriptomic and proteomic approach to identify the main Torymus sinensis venom components. Scientific Reports, 11 (1), 5032. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84385-5
Shah, P. T., Ali, F., Noor-Ul-Huda, Qayyum, S., Ahmed, S., Haleem, K., Tauseef, I., Mujaddad-ur-Rehman, Hayat, A., Malik, A. A., Ramzan, R. & Khan, I. (2018). Scorpion venom: a poison or a medicine-mini review. Indian J. Geo-Marine Sci., 47, 773-778.
Taibi-Djennah, Z., Matin-Eauclaire, M. F. & Laraba-Djebari, F. (2015). Systemic responses following brain injuries and inflammatory process activation induced by a neurotoxin of androctonus scorpion venom. Neuroimmunomodulation, 22 (6), 347-357. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371493
Uzair, B., Irshad, S. B., Khan, B. A., Azad, B., Mahmood, T., Rehman, M. U. & Braga, V. A. (2018). Scorpion venom peptides as a potential source for human drug candidates. Protein and Peptide Letters, 25 (7), 702-708. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929866525666180614114307
Vincenti, M. P. (2001). The matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) genes: transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation, signal transduction and cell-type-specific expression. Methods in Molecular Biology, 151, 121-148. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-046-2:121
Ward, M. J., Ellsworth, S. A. & Nystrom, G. S. (2018). A global accounting of medically significant scorpions: epidemiology, major toxins, and comparative resources in harmless counterparts. Toxicon, 151, 137-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.07.007
Yaqoob, R., Tahir, H. M., Arshad, M., Naseem, S. & Ahsan, M. M. (2016). Optimization of the conditions for maximum recovery of venom from scorpions by electrical stimulation. Pak. J. Zool., 48, 265-269.
Zhang, X. Y. & Zhang, P. Y. (2016). Scorpion venoms in gastric cancer. Oncology Letters, 12 (5), 3683-3686. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2016.5134
Ahmadi, S., Knerr J. M., Argemi, L., Bordon, K. C. F., Pucca, M. B., Cerni, F. A., Arantes, E. C., Çalışkan, F. & Laustsen A. H. (2020). Scorpion venom: detriments and benefits. Biomedicines, 8 (5), 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines8050118
Al-Asmari, A. K., Islam, M. & Al-Zahrani, A. M. (2016). In vitro analysis of the anticancer properties of scorpion venom in colorectal and breast cancer cell lines. Oncology Letters, 11 (2), 1256-1262. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2015.4036
Al-Asmari, A. K., Kunnathodi, F., Saadon, K. Al. &. Idris, M. M. (2016). Elemental analysis of scorpion venoms. Journal of Venom Research, 7, 16-20.
Almeida, J. S., Ravetti, C. G., Nobre, V. A., Vassallo, P. F. & Melo de Andrade, M. V. (2025). New biomarkers in scorpion stings. Toxicon, 255, 108258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108258
Alqahtani, A. R. & Badry, A. (2020). Genetic diversity among different species of the genus Leiurus (Scorpiones: Buthidae) in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. Saudi J. Biol. Sci., 27 (12), 3348-3353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.08.048
Bradford, M. M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Anal Biochem, 72, 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-2697(76)90527-3
Bo¨ckelman, C., Beilmann-Lehtonen, I., Kaprio T., Koskensalo, S., Tervahartiala, T., Mustonen, H., Stenman, U.-H., Sorsa, T. & Haglund, C. (2018). Serum MMP-8 and TIMP-1 predict prognosis in colorectal cancer. BMC Cancer, 18 (1), 679. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12885-018-4589-x
Cabral-Pacheco, G. A., Garza-Veloz, I., Castruita-De la Rosa C., Ramirez-Acuña, J. M., Perez-Romero, B. A., Guerrero-Rodriguez, J. F., Martinez-Avila, N. & Martinez-Fierro, M. L. (2019). The roles of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in human diseases. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21 (24), 9739. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21249739
Cid-Uribe, J. I., Veytia-Bucheli, J. I., Romero-Gutierrez, T., Ortiz, E. & Possani, L. D. (2020). Scorpion venomics: a 2019 overview. Expert Rev. Proteomics,17 (1), 67-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/14789450.2020.1705158
Ca´rcel-Ma´rquez, J., Cullell, N., Muiño E., Gallego-Fabrega, C., Lledós, M., Ibañez L., Krupinski, J., Montaner J., Cruchaga C., Lee, J.-M., Gill, D., Paré, G., Mola-Caminal, M., Roquer J., Jimenez-Conde, J., Martí-Fàbregas, J. & Fernandez-Cadenas, I. (2021). Causal effect of MMP-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1), MMP-8, and MMP-12 levels on ischemic stroke: a Mendelian randomization study. Stroke, 52 (7), 316-320. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.120.033041
Cohen, G., S., Burks, R. & Frank, J. A. (2018). Chlorotoxin – a multimodal imaging platform for targeting glioma tumors. Toxins, 10 (12), 496. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10120496
Crowther, J. R. (2009). The ELISA Guidebook. Humana Press, New York, NY, USA. 566, 9-289. https://doi.org/10.1385/1592590497
Gunas, V., Maievskyi, O., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Savchuk, O., Shchypanskyi, S. & Gunas, I. (2023). The activity of metalloproteases and serine proteases in various organs after Leiurus macroctenus envenomation. J. Toxicol., 2023, 5262729. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/5262729
Gunas, V., Maievskyi, O., Synelnyk, T., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Savchuk, O. & Gunas, I. (2024). Cytokines and their regulators in rat lung following scorpion envenomation. Toxicon X., 8 (22), 100198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxcx.2024.100198
Gutierrez, J. M. & Rucavado, A. (2000). Snake venom metalloproteinases: their role in the pathogenesis of local tissue damage. Biochimie, 82 (9-10), 841-850. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-9084(00)01163-9
Jalali, A. & Rahim, F. (2014). Epidemiological review of scorpion envenomation in Iran. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research: Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 13 (3), 743-756.
Jenkins, T. P., Ahmadi, S., Bittenbinder, M. A., Stewart, T. K., Akgun, D. E., Hale M., Nasrabadi, N. N., Wolff, D. S., Vonk, F. J., Kool, J. & Laustsen, A. H. (2021). Terrestrial venomous animals, the envenomings they cause, and treatment perspectives in the Middle East and North Africa. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 15, (12), e0009880. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0009880
Haidai, O. S., Dzevulska, I. V., Samborska, I. А. & Shvager О. V. (2025). Differences in the structural organization of liver tissue in experimental rats 1 and 3 hours after administration of Leiurus macroctenus scorpion venom. Reports of Morphology, 31 (3), 62-68. https://doi.org/10.31393/morphology-journal-2025-31(3)-08
Feola, A, Perrone, M. A., Piscopo, A., Casella, F., Pietra, B. D. & Di Mizio, G. (2020). Autopsy findings in case of fatal scorpion sting: a systematic review of the literature. Healthcare (Basel), 8 (3), 325. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare8030325
Köse, A., Biricik, S., Bozkurt, S., Cavuşoğlu, C. & Ayrık, C. (2016). Toxic hepatitis and coagulopathy due to scorpion sting. Annals of Clinical Case Reports, 1, 1212.
Kunitz, M. (1947). Crystalline soybean trypsin inhibitor. Journal of General Physiology, 30 (4), 291-310. https://doi.org/10.1085/jgp.30.4.291
Kuyvenhoven, J. P., van Hoek, B., Blom, E., van Duijn, W., Hanemaaijer, R., Verheijen, J. H., Lamers, C. B. H. W. & Verspaget, H. W. (2003). Assessment of the clinical significance of serum matrix metalloproteinases MMP-2 and MMP-9 in patients with various chronic liver diseases and hepatocellular carcinoma. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 89 (4), 718-725.
Lamraoui, A., Adi-Bessalem, S. & Laraba-Djebari, F. (2015). Immunopathologic effects of scorpion venom on hepato-renal tissues: Involvement of lipid derived inflammatory mediators. Exp. Mol. Pathol., 99 (2), 286-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yexmp.2015.07.013
Li, A., Yu, H., Li, R., Yue Y., Yu, C., Geng, H., Liu, S., Xing, R. & Li, P. (2022). Jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai causes myotoxicity through the metalloprotease component of venom. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 151, 113192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2022
Matkivska, R., Shchypanskyi, S., Raksha, N., Vovk, T., Halenova, T., Melnyk, V., Falalyeyeva, T. & Savchuk, O. (2024). Proteolytic profile alterations as one of the scorpion’s Leiurus macroctenus envenomation effects on kidneys. Toxicology International, 31 (2), 84-92. https://doi.org/10.18311/ti/2024/v31i2/35384
Menaldo, D. L., Bernardes, C. P., Santos-Filho, N. A., de Moura, A. L. & Fuly, A. L. (2012). Biochemical characterization and comparative analysis of two distinct serine proteases from Bothrops pirajai snake venom. Biochimie, 94, 2545-2558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2012.07.007
Minutti-Zanella, C., Gil-Leyva, E. J. & Vergara, I. (2021). Immunomodulatory properties of molecules from animal venoms. Toxicon, 191, 54-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.12.018
Naim, A., Pan, Q. & Baig, M. S. (2017). Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in liver diseases. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hepatology, 7 (4), 367-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jceh.2017.09.004
Ozkan, O. & Filazi, A. (2004). The determination of acute lethal dose-50 (LD50) levels of venom in mice, obtained by different methods from scorpions, Androctonus crassicauda (Oliver 1807). Turkiye Parazitol Derg, 28, 50-53.
Patel, S. (2017). A critical review on serine protease: Key immune manipulator and pathology mediator. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr), 45 (6), 579-591. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aller.2016.10.011
Reis, M. B., Zoccal, K. F., Gardinassi, L. G. & Faccioli, L. H. (2019). Scorpion envenomation and inflammation: Beyond neurotoxic effects. Toxicon, 167, 174-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.06.219
Santiba´ñez-Lo´pez, C. E., Ontano, A. Z., Harvey, M. S. & Sharma, P. P. (2018). Transcriptomic analysis of pseudoscorpion venom reveals a unique cocktail dominated by enzymes and protease inhibitors. Toxins, 10 (5), 207. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins10050207
Scieuzo, C., Salvia, R., Franco, A., Pezzi, M., Cozzolino, F., Chicca M., Scapoli, C., Vogel H., Monti M., Ferracini C., Pucci P., Alma A. & Falabella P. (2021). An integrated tran- scriptomic and proteomic approach to identify the main Torymus sinensis venom components. Scientific Reports, 11 (1), 5032. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84385-5
Shah, P. T., Ali, F., Noor-Ul-Huda, Qayyum, S., Ahmed, S., Haleem, K., Tauseef, I., Mujaddad-ur-Rehman, Hayat, A., Malik, A. A., Ramzan, R. & Khan, I. (2018). Scorpion venom: a poison or a medicine-mini review. Indian J. Geo-Marine Sci., 47, 773-778.
Taibi-Djennah, Z., Matin-Eauclaire, M. F. & Laraba-Djebari, F. (2015). Systemic responses following brain injuries and inflammatory process activation induced by a neurotoxin of androctonus scorpion venom. Neuroimmunomodulation, 22 (6), 347-357. https://doi.org/10.1159/000371493
Uzair, B., Irshad, S. B., Khan, B. A., Azad, B., Mahmood, T., Rehman, M. U. & Braga, V. A. (2018). Scorpion venom peptides as a potential source for human drug candidates. Protein and Peptide Letters, 25 (7), 702-708. https://doi.org/10.2174/0929866525666180614114307
Vincenti, M. P. (2001). The matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP) genes: transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation, signal transduction and cell-type-specific expression. Methods in Molecular Biology, 151, 121-148. https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-046-2:121
Ward, M. J., Ellsworth, S. A. & Nystrom, G. S. (2018). A global accounting of medically significant scorpions: epidemiology, major toxins, and comparative resources in harmless counterparts. Toxicon, 151, 137-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.07.007
Yaqoob, R., Tahir, H. M., Arshad, M., Naseem, S. & Ahsan, M. M. (2016). Optimization of the conditions for maximum recovery of venom from scorpions by electrical stimulation. Pak. J. Zool., 48, 265-269.
Zhang, X. Y. & Zhang, P. Y. (2016). Scorpion venoms in gastric cancer. Oncology Letters, 12 (5), 3683-3686. https://doi.org/10.3892/ol.2016.5134
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Activity of metalloproteases and serine proteases in rat liver after Leiurus macroctenus envenomation. (2026). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 18(2), 659-666. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v18i2.7372
