Emerging biotechnological and eco-remediation strategies for the biodegradation and removal of micro/nanoplastics from the environment: A comprehensive review
Article Main
Abstract
The proliferation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems have proven to be a major menace to biodiversity, ecosystems, and environmental sustainability. The sources of these intractable contaminants are the fragmentation of macroplastic waste, primary particles like tire wear, synthetic fibers, personal care products, and discharges of industries. The minuscule size of MPs and NPs, their great mobility as well as resistance to degradation make them avoid traditional filtration and wastewater treatment systems. This enables them to be concentrated along food webs and causes great threats to the human health and the wildlife. Concentrating on the most innovative biotechnological and eco-remediation methods, this paper gathers the latest advances in the method of the biodegradation and elimination of MPs and NPs. The connection between environmental adaptability and microbial degradation of polymer-specific processes and microalgae, as well as synthetic microbial consortia, is explored. It also brings to the forefront progresses in enzyme mediated depolymerization, including the discovery of oxidative enzymes, and hydrolases that degrade plastic. Moreover, the biosorption, phytoremediation, and bio-based or green nanomaterials potential is evaluated as the promising, environment-friendly, approaches to capture and transformation of pollutants. The technical and analytical challenges of determining, quantifying, and predicting the movement, aging, and ecological fate of MPs and NPs in complex environmental matrices are also discussed in the paper, and how metabolic engineering, systems biology, omics technologies and nanobioremediation could enhance the effectiveness, selectivity and field implementation.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Bioremediation technologies, Environmental risk assessment, Enzyme engineering, Plastisphere microbial communities, Sustainable remediation
References
Abdelhamid, M. A., Khalifa, H. O., Yoon, H. J., Ki, M. R. & Pack, S. P. (2024). Microbial immobilized enzyme biocatalysts for multipollutant mitigation: harnessing nature’s toolkit for environmental sustainability. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(16), 8616. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25168616
Ahmed, M., Iram, S., Tabassum, N., Sajid, M., Paseutsakoun, K., Aleksza, L. & Székács, A. (2025). Biodegradation efficacy of Aspergillus niger and trichoderma harzianum on low-density polyethylene. Polymers, 17(10), 1303. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101303
Akash, K., Parthasarathi, R., Kanmani Bharathi, J. & Elango, R. (2025). Exploring the role of microbes in the biodegradation of plastic waste: Mechanisms, Interactions, and implications for sustainable waste management-A review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 236(12), 786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-08343-x
Akhtar, M. S., Ali, S. & Zaman, W. (2024). Innovative adsorbents for pollutant removal: exploring the latest research and applications. Molecules, 29(18), 4317. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184317
Ali, Z., Abdullah, M., Hafeez, F., Alasmari, A., Sardar, F., Ahmad, J. & Yasin, M. T. (2025). Advances in myco-remediation strategies for emerging contaminants: a comprehensive review. Bioremediation Journal, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889868.2025.2507431
Amin, N. & Erfan, M. A. (2025). Environmental fate and toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles in aquatic ecosystems: A comprehensive review. Journal of Natural Science Review, 3(1), 104-125. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v3i1.103
Baldelli, V., Carrasco Aliaga, S. J., Colque, C. A., Mazzola, F., Ravishankar, S., Johansen, H. K. & Rossi, E. (2025). The Pseudomonas aeruginosa sir B2 gene is a fitness determinant of anaerobic growth and its inactivation affects virulence and rugose small colony variants emergence. Virulence, (just-accepted), 2605800. https://doi.org/10.1080/21505594.2025.2605800
Banica, A. L., Radulescu, C., Dulama, I. D., Bucurica, I. A., Stirbescu, R. M. & Stanescu, S. G. (2024). Microplastics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy metals in milk: Analyses and induced health risk assessment. Foods, 13(19), 3069. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193069
Bashir, M., Ahanger, M. A. & Gani, K. M. (2024). Investigations on adsorptive removal of PVC microplastics from aqueous solutions using Pinus roxburghii–derived biochar. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(49), 59416-59429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35166-w
Bhandari, G., Gupta, S., Gangola, S., Bahuguna, M. & Chaudhary, S. (2024). Occurrence, Fate, and biodegradation of microplastics in marine environments. In Microbial Inoculants: Applications for Sustainable Agriculture, (. 327-347). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0633-4_14
Bombaywala, S., Pratap, V. & Mandpe, A. (2024). Bioengineering solutions for microplastic pollution: Leveraging microbial assistance. In Remediation of Plastic and Microplastic Waste (122-140). CRC Press.
Bushong, A., Sepúlveda, M., Scherer, M., Valachovic, A. C., Neill, C. M., Horn, S. & Hoskins, T. (2024). Effects of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) on amphibian body and liver conditions: Is lipid metabolism being perturbed throughout metamorphosis ?. Toxics, 12(10), 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100732
Camerano Spelta Rapini, C., Di Berardino, C., Peserico, A., Capacchietti, G. & Barboni, B. (2024). Can mammalian reproductive health withstand massive exposure to polystyrene micro-and nanoplastic derivatives? A systematic review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(22), 12166. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252212166
Chen, C. Y., Kamineni, V. N. & Lin, Z. (2024). A physiologically based toxicokinetic model for microplastics and nanoplastics in mice after oral exposure and its implications for human dietary exposure assessment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 480, 135922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135922
Chen, R., Qin, R., Bai, H. & Jia, X. (2024). Recent advances and optimization strategies for the microbial degradation of PCBs: From monocultures to microbial consortia. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science And Technology, 54(14), 1023-1049. https://doi.org/10.10 80/10643389.2023.2286870
Chigwada, A. D., Tekere, M. & Ogola, H. J. O. (2025). Ecological and genomic perspectives on fungal plastic biodegradation: Research Progress, opportunities and challenges. Ecological Genetics and Genomics, 100378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egg.2025.100378
Choi, J., Kim, H., Ahn, Y. R., Kim, M., Yu, S., Kim, N. & Kim, H. O. (2024). Recent advances in microbial and enzymatic engineering for the biodegradation of micro-and nanoplastics. RSC Advances, 14(14), 9943-9966. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ra00844h
Daoutakou, M. & Kintzios, S. (2025). Biosensors for micro-and nanoplastics detection: A review. Chemosensors, 13(4), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13040143
Das, D. & Mitra, A. K. (2024). Microbial intervention in the management of refractory wastes. In Development in Wastewater Treatment Research And Processes, (pp. 187-202). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13884-3.00015-9
de Brito, A. L., Mattioni, J. V., Ramos, G. R., Nakamura, M. & Toma, H. E. (2024). Direct monitoring of the enzymatically sequestering and degrading of PET microplastics using hyperspectral Raman microscopy. Micron., 187, 103722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2024.103722
de Rosset, A., Torres-Mendieta, R., Pasternak, G. & Yalcinkaya, F. (2025). Synergistic effects of natural biosurfactant and metal oxides modification on PVDF nanofiber filters for efficient microplastic and oil removal. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 194, 997-1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.12.059
Dey, N., Vinayagam, S., Kamaraj, C., Gnanasekaran, L., Goyal, K., Ali, H. & Subramaniyan, V. (2025). Ecotoxicological evaluation of nanosized particles with emerging contaminants and their impact assessment in the aquatic environment: a review. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 27(4), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-025-06306-1
Dey, S., Veerendra, G. T. N., Babu, P. A., Manoj, A. P. & Nagarjuna, K. (2024). Degradation of plastics waste and its effects on biological ecosystems: A scientific analysis and comprehensive review. Biomedical Materials & Devices, 2(1), 70-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-023-00085-w
Ding, Y., Tang, S., Zhang, T., Ma, S., Xu, H. & Zhao, Y. (2025). Unveiling the environmental characteristics of sub-1000-nm nanoplastics: A comprehensive review of the preparation methods for nanoplastic model samples. Environmental Science & Technology, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c02114
dos Santos, C. R., Carpanez, T. G. & Moreira, V. R. (2025). Mitigating Microplastics. Handbook of Microplastic Pollution in the Environment: Monitoring and Treatment of Microplastics and Policy Perspectives, 102.
El Darai, T., Ter-Halle, A., Blanzat, M., Despras, G., Sartor, V., Bordeau, G. & Garrigues, J. C. (2024). Chemical recycling of polyester textile wastes: shifting towards sustainability. Green Chemistry, 26(12), 6857-6885. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4GC00911H
Enyoh, C. E., Devi, A., Maduka, T. O., Tyagi, L., Rana, S., Akuwudike, I. S. & Wang, Q. (2025, April). A review of materials for the removal of micro-and nanoplastics from different environments. In Micro., (5, 2, 17). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/micro5020017
Esanakula, J. R., Gondi, K. R., Chaithanya, K. & Reddy, K. K. (2025). Applications of magneto-responsive smart materials in environmental nanotechnology: Opportunities and challenges. J. Environ. Nanotechnol., 14(1), 491-504. https://doi.org/10.13074/jent.2025.03.2511170
Fakayode, S. O., Mehari, T. F., Fernand Narcisse, V. E., Grant, C., Taylor, M. E., Baker, G. A. & Anum, D. (2024). Microplastics: Challenges, toxicity, spectroscopic and real-time detection methods. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 59(9), 1183-1277. https://doi.org/10.1080/05704928.2024.2311130
Fang, C., Luo, Y. & Naidu, R. (2024). Advancements in raman imaging for nanoplastic analysis: Challenges, algorithms and future Perspectives. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1290, 342069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2023.342069
Flores, E., Teixeira, T., Barros, P., Guterres, B., Junior, T. P., Cabral, A. & Pias, M. R. (2024, August). On efficient data sharing for planetary digital twins: distributed microplastic monitoring. In 2024 IEEE 22nd International Conference on Industrial Informatics, (INDIN) (1-8). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/INDIN58382.2024.1077 4252
Gao, S., Zhang, S., Feng, Z., Lu, J., Fu, G. & Yu, W. (2024). The bio–accumulation and–magnification of microplastics under predator–prey isotopic relationships. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 480, 135896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135896
Gecheva, G., Varadinova, E. & Milkova, T. (2025). Constructed wetlands for controlled bioremediation of wastewater: case studies on bioremediation of wastewaters for the elimination of heavy metals, pesticides, microplastics. In Biotechnologies for Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery, (317-327). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-27376-6.00004-9
Giyahchi, M. & Moghimi, H. (2025). Sustainable solution for microplastic removal: Sequential biodegradation and detoxification of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics by two natural microbial consortia. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 302, 118738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118738
Goyal, A., Meena, P. K., Shelare, S. & Kumar, S. (2025). Advancing biofuel production through nanomaterials: a review of efficiency improvements, challenges, and future directions. Nanocomposites, 11(1), 151-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/20550324.2025.2518755
Gusmao, C., Palharim, P. H., Diniz, L. A., de Assis, G. C., de Carvalho e Souza, T., Ramos, B. & Teixeira, A. C. S. C. (2024). Advances in fluidized bed photocatalysis: bridging gaps, standardizing metrics, and shaping sustainable solutions for environmental challenges. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 63(34), 14967-14982. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.4c00821
Hadiyanto, H., Joelyna, F. A., Khoironi, A., Sudarno, S., Safaat, J. A., Pratama, W. D. & Nur, M. M. A. (2025). Harnessing Chlorella vulgaris-Aspergilus niger interactions for effective microplastic removal in aquatic ecosystems. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-025-03062-0
Haripriyaa, M. & Suthindhiran, K. (2023). Pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles: current knowledge, future directions and its implications in drug delivery. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9(1), 113. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-023-00569-y
Hasan, H. A., Rahim, N. F. M., Alias, J., Ahmad, J., Said, N. S. M., Ramli, N. N. & Kurniawan, S. B. (2024). A review on the roles of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) in wastewater treatment: source, mechanism study, bioproducts, limitations, and future challenges. Water, 16(19), 2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192812
Heinze, W. M. (2024). Microplastic distribution and transport in agricultural soils. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae, (2024: 80). https://doi.org/10.54612/a.42s2q72vbg
Hernández-Huerta, M. T., Pérez-Campos, E., Mayoral, L. P. C., Martínez, I. P. V., González, W. R., González, E. E. J. & Cabrera-Fuentes, H. A. (2025). Proactive strategies to prevent biofilm-associated infections: From mechanistic insights to clinical translation. Microorganisms, 13(12), 2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms1 3122726
Hossain, S., Shukri, Z. N. A., Waiho, K., Ibrahim, Y. S., Kamaruzzan, A. S., Rahim, A. I. A. & Kasan, N. A. (2024). Biodegradation of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) microplastics by floc-forming bacteria, Bacillus cereus strain SHBF2, isolated from a commercial aquafarm. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(22), 32225-32245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33337-3
Hu, X., Gu, H., Sun, X., Wang, Y., Liu, J., Yu, Z. & Wang, G. (2024). Metagenomic exploration of microbial and enzymatic traits involved in microplastic biodegradation. Chemosphere, 348, 140762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140762
Jin, Y., Li, X., Cheng, X., Chen, K. & Mu, R. (2025). Particle size matters: Unraveling the impact of microplastic heteroaggregates on algal–bacterial consortium in wastewater treatment. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 117819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117819
Kamel, A. H., Hefnawy, A., Hazeem, L. J., Rashdan, S. A. & Abd-Rabboh, H. S. (2024). Current perspectives, challenges, and future directions in the electrochemical detection of microplastics. RSC Advances, 14(3), 2134-2158. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA06755F
Karnwal, A., Martolia, S., Dohroo, A., Al-Tawaha, A. R. M. S. & Malik, T. (2024). Exploring bioremediation strategies for heavy metals and POPs pollution: the role of microbes, plants, and nanotechnology. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1397850. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1397850
Kaundal, M. & Singh, J. (2025). MPs Properties, Classification, Characterization, Sources, Environmental and health impact. Microplastics (MPs) in Wastewater: Determination-Treatment Methods and Effects on Climate Change, 1-15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-76949-8_1
Kaur, M., Gibson, C. T., Miller, S., Leterme, S. C. & Macgregor, M. (2025). A physical chemistry lens on environmental nanoplastics analysis challenges. Part II: Detection techniques-principles, limitations and future directions. Environmental Science, Nano. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EN00630A
Keshta, A. E., Gamal, A., Soryal, M., Hana, P., Albogami, B. Z. & Elshobary, M. (2025). Microplastics dynamics: Unveiling sources, Sinks, and Removal strategies for mitigating environmental contamination. In Circular Bioeconomy-Integrating Biotechnology and Sustainability for a Greener Planet, IntechOpen.
Khaki, Q. Z. & Kumar, P. (2025). Ecological Impacts of microplastics and their additives: Exposure risk/toxicity assessment and fate/transport of persistent, bio‐accumulative and toxic substances. Microplastics in the Environment: Fate, Impacts, Removal, and Management, 259-282. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394251100.ch10
Khan, D. & Ong, W. J. (2025). Tailoring Hydrogen Storage Materials Kinetics and Thermodynamics Through Nanostructuring, and Nanoconfinement With In‐Situ Catalysis. Interdisciplinary Materials, 4(2), 249-283. https://doi.org/10.1002/idm2.12234
Khanam, M. M., Uddin, M. K. & Kazi, J. U. (2025). Advances in machine learning for the detection and characterization of microplastics in the environment. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 13, 1573579. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1573579
Kong, L. & Shi, X. (2025). Dissecting the effects of co-exposure to microplastics and sulfamethoxazole on anaerobic digestion. Journal of Environmental Management, 373, 123562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123562
Kraus, K., Mikziński, P., Widelski, J. & Paluch, E. (2025). Nanomaterials for photocatalytic inactivation and eradication of Candida spp. biofilms in healthcare environment: A novel approach in modern clinical practice. Molecules, 30(23), 4500. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234500
Kumar, A., Thakur, Y., & Sinha, R. (2025). Physiological impact of secondary nanoplastics on aquatic inhabitants in special reference to immunotoxicity. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 197(2), 209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-13645-y
Kumar, M., Chaudhary, V., Kumar, R., Yadav, M. K., Chauhan, C., Prakash, S. & Srivastav, A. L. (2025). Advanced biotechnological tools towards achieving united nations sustainable development goals (UNSDGs) for mitigation of microplastics from environments: a review. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01080-5
Kumar, R., Singh, R., Mishra, A. & Singh, R. S. (2025). A decadal review of carbon-based sustainable materials: chemistry, mechanisms, and environmental applications. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01080-5
Kumari, S., Samuel, J., Mishra, A. K. & Nagpal, S. (2025). exploring innovations in microplastics detection: A comprehensive methodological review. Chemistry Africa, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-025-01263-7
LaRue, R. J., Warren, A. & Latulippe, D. R. (2024). Evaluation of microplastic particle transmission in a microfiltration process using fluorescence measurements: Effect of pore size and flux. Journal of Membrane Science, 708, 123045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123045
Li, M., Chen, Z. & Huo, Y. X. (2024). Advancements in the bio-degradation of plastic waste into value-added chemicals: A recent perspective. Synthetic Biology and Engineering, 2(2), 10009. https://doi.org/10.35534/sbe.2024.10009
Li, S., Song, Y., Cai, M. & Wang, C. (2025). The enrichment of polystyrene and polypropylene microplastics on biofilms changed the microbial community structure and metabolic activity. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13(3), 116249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.116249
Liu, F., Wang, T., Liu, X. H., Xu, N. & Pan, X. L. (2025). Efficient biodegradation and upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate mediated by cell-factories. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1599470. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1599470
Liu, P., Wen, S., Zhu, S., Hu, X. & Wang, Y. (2025). Microbial degradation of soil organic pollutants: mechanisms, challenges, and advances in forest ecosystem management. Processes, 13(3), 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030916
Ma, Y. F. & You, X. Y. (2025). Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: a significant force of disrupting health and altering trophic transfer patterns by reduced assimilation efficiency of aquatic organisms. Aquaculture, 594, 741463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.74 1463
Maddala, V. K. S., Chatla, S. & Kunduri, L. (2025). Mycoremediation: A sustainable approach to curb emerging pollutants. In Biotechnological Interventions in the Removal of Emerging Pollutants, (347-363). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9922-0_17
Mahendran, R. & Ramaswamy, S. N. (2024). Nanoplastics as trojan horses: deciphering complex connections and environmental ramifications: a review. Chemistry Africa, 7(5), 2265-2282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-023-00865-3
Mohanty, J., Dey, S., Bala, K. & Das, A. P. (2024). Recent advances in microplastic pollution for its sustainable management. Sustainable Management Of Urban Plastic Waste Through Circular Economic Approaches, 27-48.
Mubayi, V., Ahern, C. B., Calusinska, M. & O’Malley, M. A. (2024). Toward a circular bioeconomy: designing microbes and polymers for biodegradation. ACS Synthetic Biology, 13(7), 1978-1993. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssynbio.4c00077
Nazeer, A., Ahmad, A., Ahmad, F. & Ahmad, S. (2024). Microbial biodegradation of plastics and microplastics: Recent development. In Plastic Pollution: Challenges and Green Solutions, (. 231-248). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5528-8_14
Nene, A., Sadeghzade, S., Viaroli, S., Yang, W., Uchenna, U. P., Kandwal, A. & Galluzzi, M. (2025). Recent advances and future technologies in nano-microplastics detection. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-01044-y
Nisha & Joshi, H. C. (2024). A systematic review: biodegradation, mechanism, remediation strategies, and environmental impacts of microplastics. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 19(5), e3122. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-01044-y
Obidi, P. O. & Bayless, D. J. (2025). The synergy of artificial intelligence and algal systems for sustainable wastewater treatment and carbon sequestration. Environmental Technology Reviews, 14(1), 1040-1067. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622515.2025.2581330
Ömer, A. & Balcı, M. A. (2025). Machine learning-driven multi-objective optimization of enzyme combinations for plastic degradation: An ensemble framework integrating sequence features and network topology. Processes, 13(6), 1936. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13061936
Pawaiya, A. & Suthar, S. (2025). Microplastic modulates cadmium toxicity in duckweed: Insights into metal uptakes and oxidative stress in the plant. Ecotoxicology, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-025-02957-x
Phillip, A. & Chauhan, T. (2024). Innovative biotechnological approaches for plastic degradation: A pathway to sustainable waste management. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 13(1), 10-30574. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2024.13.1.1861
Puranik, S., Shylla, A., Manoj, M. & Vijaysri, D. (2024). Current Progress and Potential Microbial Cornucopia for Plastic Degradation. Advanced Strategies for Biodegradation of Plastic Polymers, 57-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55661-6_3
Qin, Y., Tu, Y., Chen, C., Wang, F., Yang, Y. & Hu, Y. (2024). Biofilms on microplastic surfaces and their effect on pollutant adsorption in the aquatic environment. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 26(6), 3303-3323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-02066-7
Quang, H. H. P., Dinh, N. T., Nguyen, P. K. T. & Nguyen, V. H. (2025). Exploring algae-based biochar strategies for adsorptive removal of antibiotics: a green leap towards environmental sustainability. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-025-06750-y
Rashid, S., Majeed, L. R., Mehta, N., Radu, T., Martín-Fabiani, I. & Bhat, M. A. (2025). Microplastics in terrestrial ecosystems: sources, transport, fate, mitigation, and remediation strategies. Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-025-00766-6
Revel, M., Van Drimmelen, C. K., Weltje, L., Hursthouse, A. & Heise, S. (2025). Effects of rare earth elements in the aquatic environment: Implications for ecotoxicological testing. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 55(5), 334-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2024.2406992
Rovira-Alsina, L., Romans-Casas, M., Perona-Vico, E., Ceballos-Escalera, A., Balaguer, M. D., Bañeras, L. & Puig, S. (2024). Microbial electrochemical technologies: Sustainable solutions for addressing environmental challenges. In: Biowaste to Value-added Products. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology, 191., Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2024_273
Samson, J. J. (2024). Characterization of microplastics using fourier infrared spectroscopy. In Microplastics and Pollutants: Interactions, Degradations and Mechanisms ,( 129-148). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54565-8_6
Sanaei, D., Dehghani, M. H., Barzegar, G., Sharifan, H., Inglezakis, V. J. & Arcibar-Orozco, J. A. (2025). Investigation of the influence of polystyrene microplastics in wastewater on anode biofilm viability and electron transfer in microbial fuel cells performance. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37(1), 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01123-8
Sarkar, A. & Bhattacharjee, S. (2025). Biofilm-mediated bioremediation of xenobiotics and heavy metals: a comprehensive review of microbial ecology, molecular mechanisms, and emerging biotechnological applications. 3 Biotech, 15(4), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-025-04252-2
Serranti, S., Capobianco, G., Cucuzza, P. & Bonifazi, G. (2024). Efficient microplastic identification by hyperspectral imaging: A comparative study of spatial resolutions, spectral ranges and classification models to define an optimal analytical protocol. Science of The Total Environment, 954, 176630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176630
Sethi, S. & Nag, A. (2024). Environmental clean-up using metagenomics: From genomics to microbial bioremediation of contaminants. In Development in Waste Water Treatment Research and Processes (. 15-42). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13609-2.00015-X
Sharma, R., Singla, L. & Singh, G. Challenges and sustainable solutions for the detection and bioremediation of microplastic pollution: Challenges and scope of their remediation from the environment. In Challenges and Sustainable Solutions in Bioremediation, (125-142). CRC Press.
Shiu, R. F., Chen, T. J., Nan, F. H., Tsao, H. C. & Ling, M. P. (2025). Risk-based integrated framework for evaluating effects of microplastics to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Environmental Research, 279, 121838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.121838
Shrinidhi, B., Subhobrata, P., Tarun, G. & Sanjukta, P. (2024). New-age bioremediation strategies to combat microplastic pollution in the environment. In Microplastic Pollutants in Biotic Systems: Environmental Impact and Remediation Techniques, (181-212). American Chemical Society. DOI:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch008
Singh, A., Ghosh, P., Rajpal, M. & Dwivedi, N. (2025). Designing and technical feasibility of biohybrid system for scaling up treatment process. In Wastewater Treatment Through Nature-Based Solutions: Achieving Sustainable Development Goal, 6 (. 221-256). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-6699-7_10
Singh, K. & Kumar, K. (2024). Micro-and nanoplastic pollution in the anthropocene: understanding and addressing a global crisis. Anthropocene Science, 3(1), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44177-024-00076-6
Sun, J., Wang, X., Zheng, H., Xiang, H., Jiang, X. & Fan, J. (2024). Characterization of the degradation products of biodegradable and traditional plastics on UV irradiation and mechanical abrasion. Science of The Total Environment, 909, 168618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2 023.168618
Tripathi, D., Pandey, P., Sharma, S., Rai, A. K. & BH, M. P. (2024). Advances in nanomaterials for precision drug delivery: Insights into pharmacokinetics and toxicity. BioImpacts: BI, 15, 30573. https://doi.org/10.34172/bi.30573
Usman, M. K., Saidu, M., Usman, G., Agboola, P. O., Onwuchekwa, C., Onwuchekwa, N. & Oniye, M. M. (2025). Eco-friendly nanomaterials for remediation of microplastics and heavy metals in wetland ecosystems: emerging technologies and environmental considerations. African Journal of Environmental Sciences and Renewable Energy, 20(1), 54-86. https://doi.org/10.62154/ajesre.2025.020.01014
Wang, C., Long, R., Lin, X., Liu, W., Zhu, L. & Jiang, L. (2024). Development and characterization of a bacterial enzyme cascade reaction system for efficient and stable PET degradation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 472, 134480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134480
Wang, H. & Zhou, Q. (2024). Bioelectrochemical anaerobic digestion mitigates microplastic pollution and promotes methane recovery of wastewater treatment in biofilm system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 472, 134488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134488
Wang, H., Kou, X., Gao, R., Huang, S., Chen, G. & Ouyang, G. (2024). Enzyme-immobilized porous crystals for environmental applications. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(27), 11869-11886. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c01273
Wang, J., Magnuson, J. T., Feng, Y., Zhao, W., Gao, C., Zheng, C. & Qiu, W. (2025). High-throughput screening identifies bisphenol P as a potent cardiotoxin, inducing cardiotoxicity through apoptosis and the NF-κB pathway. Environmental Science & Technology. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5c00573
Wang, P., Xia, P., Gao, S., Shi, W. & Zhang, X. (2025). Critical structures of bisphenol analogues on embryonic toxicity identified by a computational approach. Environmental Science & Technology, 59(3), 1553-1564. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c10012
Xie, J., Gowen, A., Xu, W. & Xu, J. (2024). Analysing micro-and nanoplastics with cutting-edge infrared spectroscopy techniques: a critical review. Analytical Methods, 16(15), 2177-2197. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3AY01808C
Xu, J., Zhang, Q., Gao, X., Wang, P., Che, H., Tang, C. & Ao, Y. (2023). Highly efficient feiii‐initiated self‐cycled Fenton system in piezo‐catalytic process for organic pollutants degradation. Angewandte Chemie., 135(32), e202307018. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.202307018
Yadav, E., Pathak, A. & Poluri, K. M. (2026). Engineered nanocatalysts for degradation and valorisation of micro/nanoplastics. Chemical Communications, https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CC06824J
Yang, X., Liu, W., Liang, Y., Guo, M., Liang, X., Liang, J. & Liang, Y. (2025). Quantification of trace polystyrene nanoplastics in aquatic environments using hybrid substrates of gold-loaded dendritic mesoporous silica and silver-decorated graphene nanosheets for surface-enhanced raman scattering analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 139708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139708
Yaqoob, L., Noor, T. & Iqbal, N. (2025). Advanced biotechnological approaches for the management of plastic waste. In Smart Waste and Wastewater Management by Biotechnological Approaches, (99-126). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-8673-2_6
Yue, S., Zhao, Z., Yang, M., Liu, Y., Wang, P., Xie, C. & Zhan, S. (2025). Reuse emerging pollutants towards the circular economy. Chinese Chemical Letters, 112108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2025.112108
Zahra, A. F. T., Tabassum, M. & Perumal, S. (2025). Novel approaches to plastic pollution: Leveraging machine learning and metaproteomics for advanced plastic degradation. Malaysian Journal of Science Health & Technology, 11(1), 78-85. https://doi.org/10.33102/mjo sht.v11i1.451
Zeng, G., Ma, Y., Du, M., Chen, T., Lin, L., Dai, M. & Pan, X. (2024). Deep convolutional neural networks for aged microplastics identification by Fourier transform infrared spectra classification. Science of the Total Environment, 913, 169623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitote nv.2023.169623
Zhai, X., Zhang, X. H. & Yu, M. (2023). Microbial colonization and degradation of marine microplastics in the plastisphere: A review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1127308. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1127308
Zhang, J., Shen, X., Robins, P., Li, X., Lee, B. J., Bi, Q. & Zhang, J. (2025). Bio‐mediated flocculation of freshwater microplastics: Effects of microalgae with exopolymer attachments. Water Resources Research, 61(5), e2024WR039115. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024WR 039115
Zhang, S., Sun, Z., Zheng, T., He, C. & Lin, D. (2024). Nanoplastics increase algal absorption and toxicity of Cd through alterations in cell wall structure and composition. Water Research, 254, 121394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121394
Zheng, Y., Song, J., Qian, Q. & Wang, H. (2024). Silver nanoparticles induce liver inflammation through ferroptosis in zebrafish. Chemosphere, 362, 142673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142673
Zhou, K., Fan, Y., Yin, H., Fu, Q., Xiao, C., Xu, N. & Ding, Z. (2025). Effect of single and hybrid microplastic exposures on anaerobic sludge in microbial electrochemical technology (MET). Journal of Environmental Management, 383, 125523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv man.2025.125523
Zhou, K., Yin, H., Ding, Z., Xu, N. & Fan, Y. (2024). Electrochemically coupled anaerobic membrane bioreactor facilitates remediation of microplastic-containing wastewater. Water, 16(22), 3236. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223236
Zhou, Q., Jin, M., Fu, L., Lin, C. T., Wu, W. & Karimi-Maleh, H. (2025). Global insights into microplastic contamination in marine life: detection methods and current status. Analyst. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5AN00358J
Ahmed, M., Iram, S., Tabassum, N., Sajid, M., Paseutsakoun, K., Aleksza, L. & Székács, A. (2025). Biodegradation efficacy of Aspergillus niger and trichoderma harzianum on low-density polyethylene. Polymers, 17(10), 1303. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17101303
Akash, K., Parthasarathi, R., Kanmani Bharathi, J. & Elango, R. (2025). Exploring the role of microbes in the biodegradation of plastic waste: Mechanisms, Interactions, and implications for sustainable waste management-A review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 236(12), 786. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-025-08343-x
Akhtar, M. S., Ali, S. & Zaman, W. (2024). Innovative adsorbents for pollutant removal: exploring the latest research and applications. Molecules, 29(18), 4317. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184317
Ali, Z., Abdullah, M., Hafeez, F., Alasmari, A., Sardar, F., Ahmad, J. & Yasin, M. T. (2025). Advances in myco-remediation strategies for emerging contaminants: a comprehensive review. Bioremediation Journal, 1-37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10889868.2025.2507431
Amin, N. & Erfan, M. A. (2025). Environmental fate and toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles in aquatic ecosystems: A comprehensive review. Journal of Natural Science Review, 3(1), 104-125. https://doi.org/10.62810/jnsr.v3i1.103
Baldelli, V., Carrasco Aliaga, S. J., Colque, C. A., Mazzola, F., Ravishankar, S., Johansen, H. K. & Rossi, E. (2025). The Pseudomonas aeruginosa sir B2 gene is a fitness determinant of anaerobic growth and its inactivation affects virulence and rugose small colony variants emergence. Virulence, (just-accepted), 2605800. https://doi.org/10.1080/21505594.2025.2605800
Banica, A. L., Radulescu, C., Dulama, I. D., Bucurica, I. A., Stirbescu, R. M. & Stanescu, S. G. (2024). Microplastics, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and heavy metals in milk: Analyses and induced health risk assessment. Foods, 13(19), 3069. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13193069
Bashir, M., Ahanger, M. A. & Gani, K. M. (2024). Investigations on adsorptive removal of PVC microplastics from aqueous solutions using Pinus roxburghii–derived biochar. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(49), 59416-59429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-35166-w
Bhandari, G., Gupta, S., Gangola, S., Bahuguna, M. & Chaudhary, S. (2024). Occurrence, Fate, and biodegradation of microplastics in marine environments. In Microbial Inoculants: Applications for Sustainable Agriculture, (. 327-347). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-0633-4_14
Bombaywala, S., Pratap, V. & Mandpe, A. (2024). Bioengineering solutions for microplastic pollution: Leveraging microbial assistance. In Remediation of Plastic and Microplastic Waste (122-140). CRC Press.
Bushong, A., Sepúlveda, M., Scherer, M., Valachovic, A. C., Neill, C. M., Horn, S. & Hoskins, T. (2024). Effects of perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) on amphibian body and liver conditions: Is lipid metabolism being perturbed throughout metamorphosis ?. Toxics, 12(10), 732. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100732
Camerano Spelta Rapini, C., Di Berardino, C., Peserico, A., Capacchietti, G. & Barboni, B. (2024). Can mammalian reproductive health withstand massive exposure to polystyrene micro-and nanoplastic derivatives? A systematic review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(22), 12166. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252212166
Chen, C. Y., Kamineni, V. N. & Lin, Z. (2024). A physiologically based toxicokinetic model for microplastics and nanoplastics in mice after oral exposure and its implications for human dietary exposure assessment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 480, 135922. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135922
Chen, R., Qin, R., Bai, H. & Jia, X. (2024). Recent advances and optimization strategies for the microbial degradation of PCBs: From monocultures to microbial consortia. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science And Technology, 54(14), 1023-1049. https://doi.org/10.10 80/10643389.2023.2286870
Chigwada, A. D., Tekere, M. & Ogola, H. J. O. (2025). Ecological and genomic perspectives on fungal plastic biodegradation: Research Progress, opportunities and challenges. Ecological Genetics and Genomics, 100378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egg.2025.100378
Choi, J., Kim, H., Ahn, Y. R., Kim, M., Yu, S., Kim, N. & Kim, H. O. (2024). Recent advances in microbial and enzymatic engineering for the biodegradation of micro-and nanoplastics. RSC Advances, 14(14), 9943-9966. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4ra00844h
Daoutakou, M. & Kintzios, S. (2025). Biosensors for micro-and nanoplastics detection: A review. Chemosensors, 13(4), 143. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemosensors13040143
Das, D. & Mitra, A. K. (2024). Microbial intervention in the management of refractory wastes. In Development in Wastewater Treatment Research And Processes, (pp. 187-202). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13884-3.00015-9
de Brito, A. L., Mattioni, J. V., Ramos, G. R., Nakamura, M. & Toma, H. E. (2024). Direct monitoring of the enzymatically sequestering and degrading of PET microplastics using hyperspectral Raman microscopy. Micron., 187, 103722. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micron.2024.103722
de Rosset, A., Torres-Mendieta, R., Pasternak, G. & Yalcinkaya, F. (2025). Synergistic effects of natural biosurfactant and metal oxides modification on PVDF nanofiber filters for efficient microplastic and oil removal. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 194, 997-1009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2024.12.059
Dey, N., Vinayagam, S., Kamaraj, C., Gnanasekaran, L., Goyal, K., Ali, H. & Subramaniyan, V. (2025). Ecotoxicological evaluation of nanosized particles with emerging contaminants and their impact assessment in the aquatic environment: a review. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 27(4), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-025-06306-1
Dey, S., Veerendra, G. T. N., Babu, P. A., Manoj, A. P. & Nagarjuna, K. (2024). Degradation of plastics waste and its effects on biological ecosystems: A scientific analysis and comprehensive review. Biomedical Materials & Devices, 2(1), 70-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44174-023-00085-w
Ding, Y., Tang, S., Zhang, T., Ma, S., Xu, H. & Zhao, Y. (2025). Unveiling the environmental characteristics of sub-1000-nm nanoplastics: A comprehensive review of the preparation methods for nanoplastic model samples. Environmental Science & Technology, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c02114
dos Santos, C. R., Carpanez, T. G. & Moreira, V. R. (2025). Mitigating Microplastics. Handbook of Microplastic Pollution in the Environment: Monitoring and Treatment of Microplastics and Policy Perspectives, 102.
El Darai, T., Ter-Halle, A., Blanzat, M., Despras, G., Sartor, V., Bordeau, G. & Garrigues, J. C. (2024). Chemical recycling of polyester textile wastes: shifting towards sustainability. Green Chemistry, 26(12), 6857-6885. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4GC00911H
Enyoh, C. E., Devi, A., Maduka, T. O., Tyagi, L., Rana, S., Akuwudike, I. S. & Wang, Q. (2025, April). A review of materials for the removal of micro-and nanoplastics from different environments. In Micro., (5, 2, 17). MDPI. https://doi.org/10.3390/micro5020017
Esanakula, J. R., Gondi, K. R., Chaithanya, K. & Reddy, K. K. (2025). Applications of magneto-responsive smart materials in environmental nanotechnology: Opportunities and challenges. J. Environ. Nanotechnol., 14(1), 491-504. https://doi.org/10.13074/jent.2025.03.2511170
Fakayode, S. O., Mehari, T. F., Fernand Narcisse, V. E., Grant, C., Taylor, M. E., Baker, G. A. & Anum, D. (2024). Microplastics: Challenges, toxicity, spectroscopic and real-time detection methods. Applied Spectroscopy Reviews, 59(9), 1183-1277. https://doi.org/10.1080/05704928.2024.2311130
Fang, C., Luo, Y. & Naidu, R. (2024). Advancements in raman imaging for nanoplastic analysis: Challenges, algorithms and future Perspectives. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1290, 342069. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2023.342069
Flores, E., Teixeira, T., Barros, P., Guterres, B., Junior, T. P., Cabral, A. & Pias, M. R. (2024, August). On efficient data sharing for planetary digital twins: distributed microplastic monitoring. In 2024 IEEE 22nd International Conference on Industrial Informatics, (INDIN) (1-8). IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/INDIN58382.2024.1077 4252
Gao, S., Zhang, S., Feng, Z., Lu, J., Fu, G. & Yu, W. (2024). The bio–accumulation and–magnification of microplastics under predator–prey isotopic relationships. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 480, 135896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135896
Gecheva, G., Varadinova, E. & Milkova, T. (2025). Constructed wetlands for controlled bioremediation of wastewater: case studies on bioremediation of wastewaters for the elimination of heavy metals, pesticides, microplastics. In Biotechnologies for Wastewater Treatment and Resource Recovery, (317-327). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-27376-6.00004-9
Giyahchi, M. & Moghimi, H. (2025). Sustainable solution for microplastic removal: Sequential biodegradation and detoxification of polyethylene terephthalate microplastics by two natural microbial consortia. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 302, 118738. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.118738
Goyal, A., Meena, P. K., Shelare, S. & Kumar, S. (2025). Advancing biofuel production through nanomaterials: a review of efficiency improvements, challenges, and future directions. Nanocomposites, 11(1), 151-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/20550324.2025.2518755
Gusmao, C., Palharim, P. H., Diniz, L. A., de Assis, G. C., de Carvalho e Souza, T., Ramos, B. & Teixeira, A. C. S. C. (2024). Advances in fluidized bed photocatalysis: bridging gaps, standardizing metrics, and shaping sustainable solutions for environmental challenges. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 63(34), 14967-14982. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.4c00821
Hadiyanto, H., Joelyna, F. A., Khoironi, A., Sudarno, S., Safaat, J. A., Pratama, W. D. & Nur, M. M. A. (2025). Harnessing Chlorella vulgaris-Aspergilus niger interactions for effective microplastic removal in aquatic ecosystems. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-025-03062-0
Haripriyaa, M. & Suthindhiran, K. (2023). Pharmacokinetics of nanoparticles: current knowledge, future directions and its implications in drug delivery. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9(1), 113. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43094-023-00569-y
Hasan, H. A., Rahim, N. F. M., Alias, J., Ahmad, J., Said, N. S. M., Ramli, N. N. & Kurniawan, S. B. (2024). A review on the roles of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) in wastewater treatment: source, mechanism study, bioproducts, limitations, and future challenges. Water, 16(19), 2812. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192812
Heinze, W. M. (2024). Microplastic distribution and transport in agricultural soils. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae, (2024: 80). https://doi.org/10.54612/a.42s2q72vbg
Hernández-Huerta, M. T., Pérez-Campos, E., Mayoral, L. P. C., Martínez, I. P. V., González, W. R., González, E. E. J. & Cabrera-Fuentes, H. A. (2025). Proactive strategies to prevent biofilm-associated infections: From mechanistic insights to clinical translation. Microorganisms, 13(12), 2726. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms1 3122726
Hossain, S., Shukri, Z. N. A., Waiho, K., Ibrahim, Y. S., Kamaruzzan, A. S., Rahim, A. I. A. & Kasan, N. A. (2024). Biodegradation of polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS) microplastics by floc-forming bacteria, Bacillus cereus strain SHBF2, isolated from a commercial aquafarm. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 31(22), 32225-32245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33337-3
Hu, X., Gu, H., Sun, X., Wang, Y., Liu, J., Yu, Z. & Wang, G. (2024). Metagenomic exploration of microbial and enzymatic traits involved in microplastic biodegradation. Chemosphere, 348, 140762. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140762
Jin, Y., Li, X., Cheng, X., Chen, K. & Mu, R. (2025). Particle size matters: Unraveling the impact of microplastic heteroaggregates on algal–bacterial consortium in wastewater treatment. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 117819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117819
Kamel, A. H., Hefnawy, A., Hazeem, L. J., Rashdan, S. A. & Abd-Rabboh, H. S. (2024). Current perspectives, challenges, and future directions in the electrochemical detection of microplastics. RSC Advances, 14(3), 2134-2158. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3RA06755F
Karnwal, A., Martolia, S., Dohroo, A., Al-Tawaha, A. R. M. S. & Malik, T. (2024). Exploring bioremediation strategies for heavy metals and POPs pollution: the role of microbes, plants, and nanotechnology. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 12, 1397850. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1397850
Kaundal, M. & Singh, J. (2025). MPs Properties, Classification, Characterization, Sources, Environmental and health impact. Microplastics (MPs) in Wastewater: Determination-Treatment Methods and Effects on Climate Change, 1-15. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-76949-8_1
Kaur, M., Gibson, C. T., Miller, S., Leterme, S. C. & Macgregor, M. (2025). A physical chemistry lens on environmental nanoplastics analysis challenges. Part II: Detection techniques-principles, limitations and future directions. Environmental Science, Nano. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EN00630A
Keshta, A. E., Gamal, A., Soryal, M., Hana, P., Albogami, B. Z. & Elshobary, M. (2025). Microplastics dynamics: Unveiling sources, Sinks, and Removal strategies for mitigating environmental contamination. In Circular Bioeconomy-Integrating Biotechnology and Sustainability for a Greener Planet, IntechOpen.
Khaki, Q. Z. & Kumar, P. (2025). Ecological Impacts of microplastics and their additives: Exposure risk/toxicity assessment and fate/transport of persistent, bio‐accumulative and toxic substances. Microplastics in the Environment: Fate, Impacts, Removal, and Management, 259-282. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394251100.ch10
Khan, D. & Ong, W. J. (2025). Tailoring Hydrogen Storage Materials Kinetics and Thermodynamics Through Nanostructuring, and Nanoconfinement With In‐Situ Catalysis. Interdisciplinary Materials, 4(2), 249-283. https://doi.org/10.1002/idm2.12234
Khanam, M. M., Uddin, M. K. & Kazi, J. U. (2025). Advances in machine learning for the detection and characterization of microplastics in the environment. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 13, 1573579. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2025.1573579
Kong, L. & Shi, X. (2025). Dissecting the effects of co-exposure to microplastics and sulfamethoxazole on anaerobic digestion. Journal of Environmental Management, 373, 123562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123562
Kraus, K., Mikziński, P., Widelski, J. & Paluch, E. (2025). Nanomaterials for photocatalytic inactivation and eradication of Candida spp. biofilms in healthcare environment: A novel approach in modern clinical practice. Molecules, 30(23), 4500. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30234500
Kumar, A., Thakur, Y., & Sinha, R. (2025). Physiological impact of secondary nanoplastics on aquatic inhabitants in special reference to immunotoxicity. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 197(2), 209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-025-13645-y
Kumar, M., Chaudhary, V., Kumar, R., Yadav, M. K., Chauhan, C., Prakash, S. & Srivastav, A. L. (2025). Advanced biotechnological tools towards achieving united nations sustainable development goals (UNSDGs) for mitigation of microplastics from environments: a review. Discover Sustainability, 6(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01080-5
Kumar, R., Singh, R., Mishra, A. & Singh, R. S. (2025). A decadal review of carbon-based sustainable materials: chemistry, mechanisms, and environmental applications. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-025-01080-5
Kumari, S., Samuel, J., Mishra, A. K. & Nagpal, S. (2025). exploring innovations in microplastics detection: A comprehensive methodological review. Chemistry Africa, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-025-01263-7
LaRue, R. J., Warren, A. & Latulippe, D. R. (2024). Evaluation of microplastic particle transmission in a microfiltration process using fluorescence measurements: Effect of pore size and flux. Journal of Membrane Science, 708, 123045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2024.123045
Li, M., Chen, Z. & Huo, Y. X. (2024). Advancements in the bio-degradation of plastic waste into value-added chemicals: A recent perspective. Synthetic Biology and Engineering, 2(2), 10009. https://doi.org/10.35534/sbe.2024.10009
Li, S., Song, Y., Cai, M. & Wang, C. (2025). The enrichment of polystyrene and polypropylene microplastics on biofilms changed the microbial community structure and metabolic activity. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13(3), 116249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.116249
Liu, F., Wang, T., Liu, X. H., Xu, N. & Pan, X. L. (2025). Efficient biodegradation and upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate mediated by cell-factories. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1599470. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2025.1599470
Liu, P., Wen, S., Zhu, S., Hu, X. & Wang, Y. (2025). Microbial degradation of soil organic pollutants: mechanisms, challenges, and advances in forest ecosystem management. Processes, 13(3), 916. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030916
Ma, Y. F. & You, X. Y. (2025). Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: a significant force of disrupting health and altering trophic transfer patterns by reduced assimilation efficiency of aquatic organisms. Aquaculture, 594, 741463. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2024.74 1463
Maddala, V. K. S., Chatla, S. & Kunduri, L. (2025). Mycoremediation: A sustainable approach to curb emerging pollutants. In Biotechnological Interventions in the Removal of Emerging Pollutants, (347-363). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-9922-0_17
Mahendran, R. & Ramaswamy, S. N. (2024). Nanoplastics as trojan horses: deciphering complex connections and environmental ramifications: a review. Chemistry Africa, 7(5), 2265-2282. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42250-023-00865-3
Mohanty, J., Dey, S., Bala, K. & Das, A. P. (2024). Recent advances in microplastic pollution for its sustainable management. Sustainable Management Of Urban Plastic Waste Through Circular Economic Approaches, 27-48.
Mubayi, V., Ahern, C. B., Calusinska, M. & O’Malley, M. A. (2024). Toward a circular bioeconomy: designing microbes and polymers for biodegradation. ACS Synthetic Biology, 13(7), 1978-1993. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssynbio.4c00077
Nazeer, A., Ahmad, A., Ahmad, F. & Ahmad, S. (2024). Microbial biodegradation of plastics and microplastics: Recent development. In Plastic Pollution: Challenges and Green Solutions, (. 231-248). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-5528-8_14
Nene, A., Sadeghzade, S., Viaroli, S., Yang, W., Uchenna, U. P., Kandwal, A. & Galluzzi, M. (2025). Recent advances and future technologies in nano-microplastics detection. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-01044-y
Nisha & Joshi, H. C. (2024). A systematic review: biodegradation, mechanism, remediation strategies, and environmental impacts of microplastics. Asia‐Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering, 19(5), e3122. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-024-01044-y
Obidi, P. O. & Bayless, D. J. (2025). The synergy of artificial intelligence and algal systems for sustainable wastewater treatment and carbon sequestration. Environmental Technology Reviews, 14(1), 1040-1067. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622515.2025.2581330
Ömer, A. & Balcı, M. A. (2025). Machine learning-driven multi-objective optimization of enzyme combinations for plastic degradation: An ensemble framework integrating sequence features and network topology. Processes, 13(6), 1936. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13061936
Pawaiya, A. & Suthar, S. (2025). Microplastic modulates cadmium toxicity in duckweed: Insights into metal uptakes and oxidative stress in the plant. Ecotoxicology, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-025-02957-x
Phillip, A. & Chauhan, T. (2024). Innovative biotechnological approaches for plastic degradation: A pathway to sustainable waste management. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 13(1), 10-30574. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2024.13.1.1861
Puranik, S., Shylla, A., Manoj, M. & Vijaysri, D. (2024). Current Progress and Potential Microbial Cornucopia for Plastic Degradation. Advanced Strategies for Biodegradation of Plastic Polymers, 57-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55661-6_3
Qin, Y., Tu, Y., Chen, C., Wang, F., Yang, Y. & Hu, Y. (2024). Biofilms on microplastic surfaces and their effect on pollutant adsorption in the aquatic environment. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management, 26(6), 3303-3323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-024-02066-7
Quang, H. H. P., Dinh, N. T., Nguyen, P. K. T. & Nguyen, V. H. (2025). Exploring algae-based biochar strategies for adsorptive removal of antibiotics: a green leap towards environmental sustainability. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 1-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-025-06750-y
Rashid, S., Majeed, L. R., Mehta, N., Radu, T., Martín-Fabiani, I. & Bhat, M. A. (2025). Microplastics in terrestrial ecosystems: sources, transport, fate, mitigation, and remediation strategies. Euro-Mediterranean Journal for Environmental Integration, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41207-025-00766-6
Revel, M., Van Drimmelen, C. K., Weltje, L., Hursthouse, A. & Heise, S. (2025). Effects of rare earth elements in the aquatic environment: Implications for ecotoxicological testing. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 55(5), 334-375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2024.2406992
Rovira-Alsina, L., Romans-Casas, M., Perona-Vico, E., Ceballos-Escalera, A., Balaguer, M. D., Bañeras, L. & Puig, S. (2024). Microbial electrochemical technologies: Sustainable solutions for addressing environmental challenges. In: Biowaste to Value-added Products. Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology, 191., Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/10_2024_273
Samson, J. J. (2024). Characterization of microplastics using fourier infrared spectroscopy. In Microplastics and Pollutants: Interactions, Degradations and Mechanisms ,( 129-148). Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54565-8_6
Sanaei, D., Dehghani, M. H., Barzegar, G., Sharifan, H., Inglezakis, V. J. & Arcibar-Orozco, J. A. (2025). Investigation of the influence of polystyrene microplastics in wastewater on anode biofilm viability and electron transfer in microbial fuel cells performance. Environmental Sciences Europe, 37(1), 79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01123-8
Sarkar, A. & Bhattacharjee, S. (2025). Biofilm-mediated bioremediation of xenobiotics and heavy metals: a comprehensive review of microbial ecology, molecular mechanisms, and emerging biotechnological applications. 3 Biotech, 15(4), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-025-04252-2
Serranti, S., Capobianco, G., Cucuzza, P. & Bonifazi, G. (2024). Efficient microplastic identification by hyperspectral imaging: A comparative study of spatial resolutions, spectral ranges and classification models to define an optimal analytical protocol. Science of The Total Environment, 954, 176630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176630
Sethi, S. & Nag, A. (2024). Environmental clean-up using metagenomics: From genomics to microbial bioremediation of contaminants. In Development in Waste Water Treatment Research and Processes (. 15-42). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-443-13609-2.00015-X
Sharma, R., Singla, L. & Singh, G. Challenges and sustainable solutions for the detection and bioremediation of microplastic pollution: Challenges and scope of their remediation from the environment. In Challenges and Sustainable Solutions in Bioremediation, (125-142). CRC Press.
Shiu, R. F., Chen, T. J., Nan, F. H., Tsao, H. C. & Ling, M. P. (2025). Risk-based integrated framework for evaluating effects of microplastics to aquatic ecosystems and human health. Environmental Research, 279, 121838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.121838
Shrinidhi, B., Subhobrata, P., Tarun, G. & Sanjukta, P. (2024). New-age bioremediation strategies to combat microplastic pollution in the environment. In Microplastic Pollutants in Biotic Systems: Environmental Impact and Remediation Techniques, (181-212). American Chemical Society. DOI:10.1021/bk-2024-1482.ch008
Singh, A., Ghosh, P., Rajpal, M. & Dwivedi, N. (2025). Designing and technical feasibility of biohybrid system for scaling up treatment process. In Wastewater Treatment Through Nature-Based Solutions: Achieving Sustainable Development Goal, 6 (. 221-256). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-96-6699-7_10
Singh, K. & Kumar, K. (2024). Micro-and nanoplastic pollution in the anthropocene: understanding and addressing a global crisis. Anthropocene Science, 3(1), 143-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44177-024-00076-6
Sun, J., Wang, X., Zheng, H., Xiang, H., Jiang, X. & Fan, J. (2024). Characterization of the degradation products of biodegradable and traditional plastics on UV irradiation and mechanical abrasion. Science of The Total Environment, 909, 168618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2 023.168618
Tripathi, D., Pandey, P., Sharma, S., Rai, A. K. & BH, M. P. (2024). Advances in nanomaterials for precision drug delivery: Insights into pharmacokinetics and toxicity. BioImpacts: BI, 15, 30573. https://doi.org/10.34172/bi.30573
Usman, M. K., Saidu, M., Usman, G., Agboola, P. O., Onwuchekwa, C., Onwuchekwa, N. & Oniye, M. M. (2025). Eco-friendly nanomaterials for remediation of microplastics and heavy metals in wetland ecosystems: emerging technologies and environmental considerations. African Journal of Environmental Sciences and Renewable Energy, 20(1), 54-86. https://doi.org/10.62154/ajesre.2025.020.01014
Wang, C., Long, R., Lin, X., Liu, W., Zhu, L. & Jiang, L. (2024). Development and characterization of a bacterial enzyme cascade reaction system for efficient and stable PET degradation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 472, 134480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134480
Wang, H. & Zhou, Q. (2024). Bioelectrochemical anaerobic digestion mitigates microplastic pollution and promotes methane recovery of wastewater treatment in biofilm system. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 472, 134488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134488
Wang, H., Kou, X., Gao, R., Huang, S., Chen, G. & Ouyang, G. (2024). Enzyme-immobilized porous crystals for environmental applications. Environmental Science & Technology, 58(27), 11869-11886. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c01273
Wang, J., Magnuson, J. T., Feng, Y., Zhao, W., Gao, C., Zheng, C. & Qiu, W. (2025). High-throughput screening identifies bisphenol P as a potent cardiotoxin, inducing cardiotoxicity through apoptosis and the NF-κB pathway. Environmental Science & Technology. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5c00573
Wang, P., Xia, P., Gao, S., Shi, W. & Zhang, X. (2025). Critical structures of bisphenol analogues on embryonic toxicity identified by a computational approach. Environmental Science & Technology, 59(3), 1553-1564. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c10012
Xie, J., Gowen, A., Xu, W. & Xu, J. (2024). Analysing micro-and nanoplastics with cutting-edge infrared spectroscopy techniques: a critical review. Analytical Methods, 16(15), 2177-2197. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3AY01808C
Xu, J., Zhang, Q., Gao, X., Wang, P., Che, H., Tang, C. & Ao, Y. (2023). Highly efficient feiii‐initiated self‐cycled Fenton system in piezo‐catalytic process for organic pollutants degradation. Angewandte Chemie., 135(32), e202307018. https://doi.org/10.1002/ange.202307018
Yadav, E., Pathak, A. & Poluri, K. M. (2026). Engineered nanocatalysts for degradation and valorisation of micro/nanoplastics. Chemical Communications, https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CC06824J
Yang, X., Liu, W., Liang, Y., Guo, M., Liang, X., Liang, J. & Liang, Y. (2025). Quantification of trace polystyrene nanoplastics in aquatic environments using hybrid substrates of gold-loaded dendritic mesoporous silica and silver-decorated graphene nanosheets for surface-enhanced raman scattering analysis. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 139708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139708
Yaqoob, L., Noor, T. & Iqbal, N. (2025). Advanced biotechnological approaches for the management of plastic waste. In Smart Waste and Wastewater Management by Biotechnological Approaches, (99-126). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-8673-2_6
Yue, S., Zhao, Z., Yang, M., Liu, Y., Wang, P., Xie, C. & Zhan, S. (2025). Reuse emerging pollutants towards the circular economy. Chinese Chemical Letters, 112108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2025.112108
Zahra, A. F. T., Tabassum, M. & Perumal, S. (2025). Novel approaches to plastic pollution: Leveraging machine learning and metaproteomics for advanced plastic degradation. Malaysian Journal of Science Health & Technology, 11(1), 78-85. https://doi.org/10.33102/mjo sht.v11i1.451
Zeng, G., Ma, Y., Du, M., Chen, T., Lin, L., Dai, M. & Pan, X. (2024). Deep convolutional neural networks for aged microplastics identification by Fourier transform infrared spectra classification. Science of the Total Environment, 913, 169623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitote nv.2023.169623
Zhai, X., Zhang, X. H. & Yu, M. (2023). Microbial colonization and degradation of marine microplastics in the plastisphere: A review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14, 1127308. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1127308
Zhang, J., Shen, X., Robins, P., Li, X., Lee, B. J., Bi, Q. & Zhang, J. (2025). Bio‐mediated flocculation of freshwater microplastics: Effects of microalgae with exopolymer attachments. Water Resources Research, 61(5), e2024WR039115. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024WR 039115
Zhang, S., Sun, Z., Zheng, T., He, C. & Lin, D. (2024). Nanoplastics increase algal absorption and toxicity of Cd through alterations in cell wall structure and composition. Water Research, 254, 121394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121394
Zheng, Y., Song, J., Qian, Q. & Wang, H. (2024). Silver nanoparticles induce liver inflammation through ferroptosis in zebrafish. Chemosphere, 362, 142673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142673
Zhou, K., Fan, Y., Yin, H., Fu, Q., Xiao, C., Xu, N. & Ding, Z. (2025). Effect of single and hybrid microplastic exposures on anaerobic sludge in microbial electrochemical technology (MET). Journal of Environmental Management, 383, 125523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenv man.2025.125523
Zhou, K., Yin, H., Ding, Z., Xu, N. & Fan, Y. (2024). Electrochemically coupled anaerobic membrane bioreactor facilitates remediation of microplastic-containing wastewater. Water, 16(22), 3236. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16223236
Zhou, Q., Jin, M., Fu, L., Lin, C. T., Wu, W. & Karimi-Maleh, H. (2025). Global insights into microplastic contamination in marine life: detection methods and current status. Analyst. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5AN00358J
Issue
Section
Research Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) © Author (s)
How to Cite
Emerging biotechnological and eco-remediation strategies for the biodegradation and removal of micro/nanoplastics from the environment: A comprehensive review. (2026). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 18(1), 489-510. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v18i1.7263
