Synthesis, chemical characterization and antimicrobial efficacy of chemically synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) against multidrug-resistant bacteria
Article Main
Abstract
The discipline of nanobiotechnology has become the most studied field in helping the medical field to develop drugs against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Chemically synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) are produced by various methods alternatives of typical antibiotics. In the present research IONPs were chemically synthesized, characterized and applied against medically important bacteria. Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) were used to observe the nanoparticles' morphology, which showed a spherical or quasi-spherical shape with a size range of ± 10 nm. Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to analyse the functional groups and the elements present in the sample, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) were used to analyse the crystalline structure. Antibacterial activity of the nanoparticles against four pathogenic strains: Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa-424), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus-902), Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans-497), and Escherichia coli (E. coli-443) was investigated by microbiological assays. Concentration-dependent inhibition zones, low minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), and notable biofilm damage were among the main methods. Time-kill assays and DNA fragmentation investigations indicated that the chemically synthesised iron oxide nanoparticles have the potential to induce bacterial cell death. Among the species investigated, S. aureus was more sensitive to IONPs, which caused DNA damage. The study highlights how IONPs are a promising candidate for inclusion in antibacterial medications.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Iron oxide nanoparticles, Microbiological assays, Multidrug-resistant bacteria, Structural characterization
References
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Alok Mahato, Sudipa Manna, Sanjukta A. Kumar & Ashis Kumar Satpati. (2025). Probing the interaction of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) with dsDNA in presence of UV–Vis light. Surface Science and Technology, 3:36 https://doi.org/10.1007/s44251-025-00102-8
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Barcelos, A. F., Amaral, A. das G., Carneiro, L. C., Naves, P. L. F. & Guilherme, L. (2025). Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of iron oxide/silver nanocomposites against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Ciencia e Natura, 47, e84264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X84264. Available in: https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X84264
Bashiru Ibrahim, Taiwo Hassan Akere & Hanene Ali-Boucette. (2023). Gold nanoparticles induced size dependent cytotoxicity on human alveolar adenocarcinoma cells by inhibiting the ubiquitin proteasome system, Pharmaceutics, 15, 432.http://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020432.
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Bristy Biswas, Md. Lutfor Rahman, Md. Farid Ahmed & Nahid Sharmin. (2024). Extraction of gamma iron oxide (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles from waste can: Structure, morphology and magnetic properties. Heliyon, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30810.
Darezereshki E. (2011). One-step synthesis of hematite (a-Fe2O3) nano-particles by direct thermal-decomposition of maghemite. Mater Lett., 65:642–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2010.11.030.
Gang Wang, Guobin Song & Yuanhong Xu. (2021). A rapid antimicrobial susceptibility test for Klebsiella pneumoniae using a broth micro-dilution combined with MALDI TOF MS. Infect Drug Resist, 14: 1823–1831.
Ghassan M. Sulaiman, Amer T. Tawfeeq & Amal S. Naji. (2017). Biosynthesis, characterization of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and evaluations of the cytotoxicity and DNA damage of human breast carcinoma cell lines. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 46:6, 1215-1229. DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2017.1366335.
Gregory P. Lopinski, Oltion Kodra, Filip Kunc, David C. Kennedy, Martin Couillard & Linda J. Johnston. (2025). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of metal oxide nanoparticles: chemical composition, oxidation state and functional group content. Nanoscale Adv., 7, 1671. DOI: 10.1039/d4na00943f
Gupta P., K. Mishra, A. K. Mittal, N. Handa & M. K. Paul. (2024). Current expansion of silver and gold nanomaterials towards cancer theranostics: Development of therapeutics. Curr. Nanosci., 20, 356.
Harem Jamal Fatih, Morahem Ashengroph, Aram Sharifi & Musa Moetasam Zorab. (2024). Green-synthesized α-Fe2O3-nanoparticles as potent antibacterial, anti-biofilm and antivirulence agents against pathogenic bacteria. BMC Microbiology, 24:535. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-024-03699-2.
M. Heggen, J.E. Martinez Medina, A.M. Philippe & E. Barborini. (2025). Experimental insights on the stability of core–shell structure in single Sn/ SnOx spherical nanoparticles during room temperature oxidation. Applied Surface Science, Elsevier, 684, 161984
Hend Algadi, Mohammed Abdelfatah Alhoot, Anis Rageh Al-Maleki & Neny Purwitasari. (2024). Effects of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles against biofilm-forming bacteria: A systematic review. J. Microbiol Biotechnol., 15;34(9):1748-1756. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2403.0 3029.
Johar Amin Ahmed Abdullah, Cesar Andre Andino Perdomo, Luis Arturo Hernandez Núnez, Octavio Rivera-Flores, Marlon Sanchez-Barahona, Antonio Guerrero & Alberto Romero. (2024). Lychee peel extract-based magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: Sustainable synthesis, multifaceted antioxidant system, and prowess in eco-friendly food preservation. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 145 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2024.03.007.
Justin C., Sheryl Ann Philip & Antony V. Samrot. (2017). Synthesis and characterization of superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and utilization of SPIONs in X-ray imaging, Appl Nanosci, 7 :463-475. DOI 10.1007/s13204-017-0583-x.
Kamath V., P. Chandra, & G.P. Jeppu. (2021). Comparative study of using five different leaf extracts in the green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for removal of arsenic from water, Int. J. Phytoremediation, 22 1278–1294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2020.1765139.
Kanish.S, Subramanian R.M., Rajeshkumar Shanmugam & Sulochana Govindharaj. (2024). In vitro antibacterial activity of iron oxide nanoparticles synthesised using hydrocotyle umbellata L. against oral pathogens. Nanotechnology Perceptions, ISSN 1660-6795.
Laurence M. Harwood & Timothy D. W. Claridge. (1996). Introduction to organic spectroscopy. Oxford University Press.
Maria Jose Inestrosa-Izurieta, Diego Vilches & Julio I, Urzua. (2023). Tailored synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for specific applications using a statistical experimental design, Heliyon, 9, 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21124
Muhammad Israeel, Javed Iqbal, Banzeer Ahsan Abbasi, Shumaila Ijaz, Rafi Ullah, Farishta Zarshan, Tabassum Yaseen, Gul Khan, Ghulam Murtaza, Iftikhar Ali, Khalou Mohammed Alarjani, Mohamed S Elshikh, Muhammad Rizwan, Shoaib Khan & Rashid Iqbal. (2024). Potential biological applications of environment friendly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles using Sageretia thea root extract. Scientific Reports, 14, Article number: 28310. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-79953-4
Priyanka Singh, Santosh Pandit, Sri Renukadevi Balusamy, Mukil Madhusudanan, Hina Singh, H. Mohamed Amsath Haseef & Ivan Mijakovic. (2024). Advanced nanomaterial for cancer therapy: Gold, Silver and Iron oxide nanoparticles in oncology application. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 14, 4. DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202403059
Rajeshkumar Shanmugam, M. Tharani, Shahabe Saquib Abullais, Santosh R. Patil, & Mohmed Isaqali Karobari. (2024). Black seed assisted synthesis, characterization, free radical scavenging, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity of iron oxide nanoparticles. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 24:241. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-024-04552-9
Rimbu M.C., Cord D., Savin M., Grigoroiu A., Mihaila M.A., Galatanu M.L., Ordeanu V., Panturoiu M., T, Ucureanu V. & Mihalache I. (2025). Harnessing plant-based nanoparticles for targeted therapy: A green approach to cancer and bacterial infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 26, 7022. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijms26147022
Sahar Q. Abas, Mais E. Ahmed & Mazin K. Hamid. (2025). Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles: Application in cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity. Iraqi JMS,. 23(1)
Sambrook, J. & Russell, D.W. (2021). Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual. 3rd Edition, 1 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York
Sathyadevi Palanisamy & Yun-Ming Wang. (2019). Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticulate system: synthesis, targeting, drug delivery and therapy in cancer, Dalton Trans. 48, 9490
Sathyanarayanan M. B., Balachandranath R., Genji Srinivasulu Y., Kannaiyan S. K., & Subbiahdoss G. (2013). Effect of gold and iron-oxide nanoparticles on biofilm-forming pathogens. International Scholarly Research Notices. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/272086.
Silvia Groiss, Raja Selvaraj, Thivaharan Varadavenkatesan & Ramesh Vinayagam. (2017). Structural characterization, antibacterial and catalytic effect of iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the leaf extract of Cynometra ramiflora. Journal of Molecular Structure. 1128, 572-578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.20 16.09.031
Tsuji, Brian T., Jenny C. Yang, Alan Forrest, Pamela A. Kelchlin & Patrick F. Smith. (2008). "In vitro pharmacodynamics of novel rifamycin ABI-0043 against Staphylococcus aureus." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 62, no. 1: 156-160. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkn133
Wahran M. Saod, Mohammed Salih Al-Janaby, Estabraq W. Gayadh, Asmiet Ramizy & Layth L. (2024). Biogenic synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus sabdariffa extract: Potential for antibiotic development and antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 8 100397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crgsc.2024.100397
Wang, Qian, Feng-Jun Sun, Yao Liu, Li-Rong Xiong, Lin-Li Xie & Pei-Yuan Xia. (2010). Enhancement of biofilm formation by subinhibitory concentrations of macrolides in icaADBC-positive and-negative clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrobial Agents and chemotherapy. 54, no. 6: 2707-2711. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.01565-09.
Abdulrahman K. Ibrahim & Rasha Al Sahlanee. (2024). Wound healing and the antimicrobial impact by using biosynthesized iron oxide nanoparticles. Iraqi Journal of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, 25,.4 147–155. https://doi.org/10.31699/IJCPE.2024.4.14.
Adel A. M. Saeed, Eishah Mohammed Ali Mohsen & Abdul-Rahman Alawi Bin Yahia. (2025). Eco-friendly synthesis, characterization, and anticancer potential of iron oxide nanoparticles derived from Plectranthus amboinicus and Dorstenia foetida plant extracts, Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews, 18:1, 2525090, DOI: 10.1080/17518253.2025.2525090
Alok Mahato, Sudipa Manna, Sanjukta A. Kumar & Ashis Kumar Satpati. (2025). Probing the interaction of iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) with dsDNA in presence of UV–Vis light. Surface Science and Technology, 3:36 https://doi.org/10.1007/s44251-025-00102-8
Al-Rawi, Al-Mudallal N. H. A. L. & Taha A. A. (2021). Determination of ferrous oxide nanoparticles minimum inhibitory concentration against local virulent bacterial isolates. Archives of Razi Institute, 76, . 4 795-808. DOI: 10.22092/ari.2021.355997.1758.
Barcelos, A. F., Amaral, A. das G., Carneiro, L. C., Naves, P. L. F. & Guilherme, L. (2025). Synthesis and antimicrobial activity of iron oxide/silver nanocomposites against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Ciencia e Natura, 47, e84264. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X84264. Available in: https://doi.org/10.5902/2179460X84264
Bashiru Ibrahim, Taiwo Hassan Akere & Hanene Ali-Boucette. (2023). Gold nanoparticles induced size dependent cytotoxicity on human alveolar adenocarcinoma cells by inhibiting the ubiquitin proteasome system, Pharmaceutics, 15, 432.http://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15020432.
Bauer, A. W., C. E. Roberts Jr & W. M. Kirby. (1959). Single disc versus multiple disc and plate dilution techniques for antibiotic sensitivity testing. Antibiotics Annual , 7 : 574-580.
Bristy Biswas, Md. Lutfor Rahman, Md. Farid Ahmed & Nahid Sharmin. (2024). Extraction of gamma iron oxide (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles from waste can: Structure, morphology and magnetic properties. Heliyon, 10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30810.
Darezereshki E. (2011). One-step synthesis of hematite (a-Fe2O3) nano-particles by direct thermal-decomposition of maghemite. Mater Lett., 65:642–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2010.11.030.
Gang Wang, Guobin Song & Yuanhong Xu. (2021). A rapid antimicrobial susceptibility test for Klebsiella pneumoniae using a broth micro-dilution combined with MALDI TOF MS. Infect Drug Resist, 14: 1823–1831.
Ghassan M. Sulaiman, Amer T. Tawfeeq & Amal S. Naji. (2017). Biosynthesis, characterization of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and evaluations of the cytotoxicity and DNA damage of human breast carcinoma cell lines. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnology, 46:6, 1215-1229. DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2017.1366335.
Gregory P. Lopinski, Oltion Kodra, Filip Kunc, David C. Kennedy, Martin Couillard & Linda J. Johnston. (2025). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy of metal oxide nanoparticles: chemical composition, oxidation state and functional group content. Nanoscale Adv., 7, 1671. DOI: 10.1039/d4na00943f
Gupta P., K. Mishra, A. K. Mittal, N. Handa & M. K. Paul. (2024). Current expansion of silver and gold nanomaterials towards cancer theranostics: Development of therapeutics. Curr. Nanosci., 20, 356.
Harem Jamal Fatih, Morahem Ashengroph, Aram Sharifi & Musa Moetasam Zorab. (2024). Green-synthesized α-Fe2O3-nanoparticles as potent antibacterial, anti-biofilm and antivirulence agents against pathogenic bacteria. BMC Microbiology, 24:535. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12866-024-03699-2.
M. Heggen, J.E. Martinez Medina, A.M. Philippe & E. Barborini. (2025). Experimental insights on the stability of core–shell structure in single Sn/ SnOx spherical nanoparticles during room temperature oxidation. Applied Surface Science, Elsevier, 684, 161984
Hend Algadi, Mohammed Abdelfatah Alhoot, Anis Rageh Al-Maleki & Neny Purwitasari. (2024). Effects of metal and metal oxide nanoparticles against biofilm-forming bacteria: A systematic review. J. Microbiol Biotechnol., 15;34(9):1748-1756. https://doi.org/10.4014/jmb.2403.0 3029.
Johar Amin Ahmed Abdullah, Cesar Andre Andino Perdomo, Luis Arturo Hernandez Núnez, Octavio Rivera-Flores, Marlon Sanchez-Barahona, Antonio Guerrero & Alberto Romero. (2024). Lychee peel extract-based magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: Sustainable synthesis, multifaceted antioxidant system, and prowess in eco-friendly food preservation. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 145 148–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2024.03.007.
Justin C., Sheryl Ann Philip & Antony V. Samrot. (2017). Synthesis and characterization of superparamagnetic iron-oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and utilization of SPIONs in X-ray imaging, Appl Nanosci, 7 :463-475. DOI 10.1007/s13204-017-0583-x.
Kamath V., P. Chandra, & G.P. Jeppu. (2021). Comparative study of using five different leaf extracts in the green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for removal of arsenic from water, Int. J. Phytoremediation, 22 1278–1294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2020.1765139.
Kanish.S, Subramanian R.M., Rajeshkumar Shanmugam & Sulochana Govindharaj. (2024). In vitro antibacterial activity of iron oxide nanoparticles synthesised using hydrocotyle umbellata L. against oral pathogens. Nanotechnology Perceptions, ISSN 1660-6795.
Laurence M. Harwood & Timothy D. W. Claridge. (1996). Introduction to organic spectroscopy. Oxford University Press.
Maria Jose Inestrosa-Izurieta, Diego Vilches & Julio I, Urzua. (2023). Tailored synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles for specific applications using a statistical experimental design, Heliyon, 9, 11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21124
Muhammad Israeel, Javed Iqbal, Banzeer Ahsan Abbasi, Shumaila Ijaz, Rafi Ullah, Farishta Zarshan, Tabassum Yaseen, Gul Khan, Ghulam Murtaza, Iftikhar Ali, Khalou Mohammed Alarjani, Mohamed S Elshikh, Muhammad Rizwan, Shoaib Khan & Rashid Iqbal. (2024). Potential biological applications of environment friendly synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles using Sageretia thea root extract. Scientific Reports, 14, Article number: 28310. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-79953-4
Priyanka Singh, Santosh Pandit, Sri Renukadevi Balusamy, Mukil Madhusudanan, Hina Singh, H. Mohamed Amsath Haseef & Ivan Mijakovic. (2024). Advanced nanomaterial for cancer therapy: Gold, Silver and Iron oxide nanoparticles in oncology application. Advanced Healthcare Materials, 14, 4. DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202403059
Rajeshkumar Shanmugam, M. Tharani, Shahabe Saquib Abullais, Santosh R. Patil, & Mohmed Isaqali Karobari. (2024). Black seed assisted synthesis, characterization, free radical scavenging, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity of iron oxide nanoparticles. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 24:241. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-024-04552-9
Rimbu M.C., Cord D., Savin M., Grigoroiu A., Mihaila M.A., Galatanu M.L., Ordeanu V., Panturoiu M., T, Ucureanu V. & Mihalache I. (2025). Harnessing plant-based nanoparticles for targeted therapy: A green approach to cancer and bacterial infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 26, 7022. https:// doi.org/10.3390/ijms26147022
Sahar Q. Abas, Mais E. Ahmed & Mazin K. Hamid. (2025). Ultrasound-assisted synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles: Application in cytotoxicity and antibacterial activity. Iraqi JMS,. 23(1)
Sambrook, J. & Russell, D.W. (2021). Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual. 3rd Edition, 1 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, New York
Sathyadevi Palanisamy & Yun-Ming Wang. (2019). Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticulate system: synthesis, targeting, drug delivery and therapy in cancer, Dalton Trans. 48, 9490
Sathyanarayanan M. B., Balachandranath R., Genji Srinivasulu Y., Kannaiyan S. K., & Subbiahdoss G. (2013). Effect of gold and iron-oxide nanoparticles on biofilm-forming pathogens. International Scholarly Research Notices. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/272086.
Silvia Groiss, Raja Selvaraj, Thivaharan Varadavenkatesan & Ramesh Vinayagam. (2017). Structural characterization, antibacterial and catalytic effect of iron oxide nanoparticles synthesized using the leaf extract of Cynometra ramiflora. Journal of Molecular Structure. 1128, 572-578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.20 16.09.031
Tsuji, Brian T., Jenny C. Yang, Alan Forrest, Pamela A. Kelchlin & Patrick F. Smith. (2008). "In vitro pharmacodynamics of novel rifamycin ABI-0043 against Staphylococcus aureus." Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 62, no. 1: 156-160. https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkn133
Wahran M. Saod, Mohammed Salih Al-Janaby, Estabraq W. Gayadh, Asmiet Ramizy & Layth L. (2024). Biogenic synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles using Hibiscus sabdariffa extract: Potential for antibiotic development and antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant bacteria. Current Research in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, 8 100397. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crgsc.2024.100397
Wang, Qian, Feng-Jun Sun, Yao Liu, Li-Rong Xiong, Lin-Li Xie & Pei-Yuan Xia. (2010). Enhancement of biofilm formation by subinhibitory concentrations of macrolides in icaADBC-positive and-negative clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis. Antimicrobial Agents and chemotherapy. 54, no. 6: 2707-2711. https://doi.org/10.1128/aac.01565-09.
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Synthesis, chemical characterization and antimicrobial efficacy of chemically synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) against multidrug-resistant bacteria. (2026). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 18(1), 37-50. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v18i1.7084
