Antibacterial activity of extracts and silver nanoparticles from Vitex Agnus castus against bacteria isolated from Hospital wastewater
Article Main
Abstract
The plants extract and silver nanoparticles are gaining popularity and are being used in medical technologies due to their antibacterial activity. This study aimed to evaluate the potential antimicrobial properties of an aqueous leaves extract of Vitex agnus-castus and biosynthesized Ag NP particles. The extract was made using three distinct methods, and silver nanoparticles were formed by adding 0.2 grams of silver nitrate to the extract. UV-Vis Spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Energy-Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to determine the characteristics of the silver nanoparticles. The results indicated that the Soxhlet extraction method produced the highest percentage of silver nanoparticles, measuring 56.13%. The antibacterial activity of both the extracts and the silver nanoparticles was tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria isolated from hospital wastewater at three different concentrations: 25, 35, and 50 mg/mL. The extracts exhibited the strongest inhibition of 25 mm against Enterobacter cloacae strain NCTC 9394 (FP929040) when using an aqueous Soxhlet extract at a concentration of 35 mg/mL. Conversely, the lowest inhibition recorded was 11 mm against Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain WPB098 (CP031876) with an acetone Soxhlet extract at a concentration of 50 mg/mL. In addition, at a concentration of 35 mg/mL, the cold soak extract did not affect Citrobacter sedlakii strain NWPK (MW720666). The antibacterial activity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles showed inhibition against Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain WPB098 (CP031876) reached 25 mm from the aqueous Soxhlet extract at a concentration of 50 mg/mL was combined with biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from the hot soaking extract at 50°C at a concentration of 50 mg/ml. Meanwhile, the lowest inhibitory against Escherichia coli strain S51 (CP015995) was 15 mm, which was achieved by using biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from aqueous Soxhlet extract at a concentration of 35 mg/mL. Biosynthesized silver nanoparticles from Vitex agnus-castus exhibited strong antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as promising antibacterial agents.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Antibacterial, Hospital wastewater, Pathogenic bacteria, Silver nanoparticles, Vitex Agnus- castus L.
References
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Abdellatif, A. A., Alhathloul, S. S., Aljohani, A. S., Maswadeh, H., Abdallah, E. M., Hamid Musa, K. & El Hamd, M. A. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles incorporated aromatherapies utilized for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities against some clinical bacterial isolates. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications, 2022(1): 2432758. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2432758
Ahmed, S., Ahmad, M., Swami, B. L. & Ikram, S. (2016). A review on plants extracts mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles for antimicrobial applications: a green expertise. Journal of Advanced Research, 7(1): 17-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2015.02.007
Ajith, M. P.; Aswathi, M; Priyadarshini, E. & Rajamani, P. (2021). Recent innovations of nanotechnology in water treatment: A comprehensive review. Bioresource technology, 342: 126000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.202 1.126000
Al-assdy, H. Q., Al-Tamimi, W. H. & Almansoory, A. F. (2025). Treatment Wastewater of Oil Refinery by Fe2O3 NPs produce by the novel Alishewanella Jeotgali strain HAQ8. Karbala International Journal of Modern Science, 11(2): 7. https://doi.org/10.33640/2405-609X.3404
Alharbi, N. S., Alsubhi, N. S. & Felimban, A. I. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using medicinal plants: Characterization and application. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 15(3): 109-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2022.06.012
Al-Khafaji, A. M., Al-mansoory, A. F. & Alyousif, N. A. (2025). Utilizing bioflocculants produced by bacteria to remediate oil contaminated water. Pollution, 11(2): 440-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22059/poll.2024.380806.2507
Altammar, K. A. (2023). A review on nanoparticles: characteristics, synthesis, applications, and challenges. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14: 1155622. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1155622
Alyousif, N. A., Al-Tamimi, W. H. & Al-luaibi, Y. Y. (2023). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of rhamnolipids biosurfactant is produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Revista Bionatura, 8: 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.04.25
Anand, U., Carpena, M., Kowalska-Góralska, M., Garcia-Perez, P., Sunita, K., Bontempi, E. & Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Safer plant-based nanoparticles for combating antibiotic resistance in bacteria: A comprehensive review on its potential applications, recent advances, and future perspective. Science of the Total Environment, 821: 153472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153472
Csakvari, A. C., Moisa, C., Radu, D. G., Olariu, L. M., Lupitu, A. I., Panda, A. O. & Copolovici, D. M. (2021). Green synthesis, characterization, and antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles obtained by using diverse varieties of Cannabis sativa leaf extracts. Molecules, 26(13): 4041. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134041
Dilbar, S., Sher, H., Ali, H., Ullah, R., Ali, A. & Ullah, Z. (2023). Antibacterial efficacy of green synthesized silver nanoparticles using Salvia nubicola extract against Ralstonia solanacearum, the causal agent of vascular wilt of tomato. ACS Omega, 8(34): 31155-31167. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c03164
Fahim, M., Shahzaib, A., Nishat, N., Jahan, A., Bhat, T. A. & Inam, A. (2024). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: A comprehensive review of methods, influencing factors, and applications. JCIS Open, 100125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jciso.2024.100125
Feng, D., Zhang, R., Zhang, M., Fang, A.& Shi, F. (2022). Synthesis of eco-friendly silver nanoparticles using glycyrrhizin and evaluation of their antibacterial ability. Nanomaterials, 12(15): 2636. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12152636
Ghabban, H., Alnomasy, S. F., Almohammed, H., Al Idriss, O. M., Rabea, S. & Eltahir, Y. (2022). Antibacterial, cytotoxic, and cellular mechanisms of green synthesized silver nanoparticles against some cariogenic bacteria (Streptococcus mutans and Actinomyces viscosus). Journal of Nanomaterials, 2022 (1): 9721736. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9721736
Ghani, S., Rafiee, B., Bahrami, S., Mokhtari, A., Aghamiri, S. & Yarian, F. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the plant extracts of vitex agnus castus L: An ecofriendly approach to overcome antibiotic resistance. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 13: 133. DOI: 10.4103/ijpvm.ijpvm_140_22
Ghavam, M. (2023). Antibacterial potential of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using Nepeta sessilifolia Bunge and Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth. extracts from the natural habitats of Iran's Rangelands. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1): 299. DOI: 10.1186/s12906-023-04101-w
Hamid, L. L., Ali, A. Y., Ohmayed, M. M., Ramizy, A. & Mutter, T. Y. (2024). Antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles and cold plasma in the treatment of hospital wastewater. Kuwait Journal of Science, 51(2): 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2024.100212
Hashemi, Z., Shirzadi-Ahoodashti, M. & Ebrahimzadeh, M. A. (2021). Antileishmanial and antibacterial activities of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles using Alcea rosea extract (AR-AgNPs). Journal of Water and Environmental Nanotechnology, 6(3): 265-276. https://doi.org/10.22090/jwent.2021.03.007
Jasim, E. Q., Muhammad-Ali, M. A. & Al-Abdullah, A. A. (2024). In Vitro studies of biosynthesized nanoparticles of Dysphania aqueous leaves extract against some isolated bacteria from wounds and burns and in silico evaluations of compounds identified in its GC-MS spectra. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 8(11). https://doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v8i11.26
Joudeh, N. & Linke, D. (2022). Nanoparticle classification, physicochemical properties, characterization, and applications: a comprehensive review for biologists. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 20(1): 262. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-022-01477-8
Jubair, N., Rajagopal, M., Chinnappan, S., Abdullah, N. B. & Fatima, A. (2021). Review on the antibacterial mechanism of plant‐derived compounds against multidrug‐resistant bacteria (MDR). Evidence‐Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021(1): 3663315. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3663315
Khames, S. A. S. K. & Ahmed, S. T. (2025). Evaluation of antibacterial and synergistic effects of vitex agnus-castus leaves extract on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. Iraqi journal of biotechnology, 24(SI).
Kozłowska, M., Ścibisz, I., Przybył, J. L., Laudy, A. E., Majewska, E., Tarnowska, K. & Ziarno, M. (2022). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of extracts from selected plant material. Applied Sciences, 12(19): 9871. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199871
Logeswari, P., Silambarasan, S. & Abraham, J. (2015). Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using plants extract and analysis of their antimicrobial property. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 19(3): 311-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2012.04.007
Mohammadidargah, M., Pedram, P., Cabrera-Barjas, G., Delattre, C., Nesic, A., Santagata, G. & Moeini, A. (2024). Biomimetic synthesis of nanoparticles: A comprehensive review on green synthesis of nanoparticles with a focus on Prosopis farcta plant extracts and biomedical applications. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 103277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2024.103277
Mohammad, A. J. & Alyousif, N. A. (2022). Short communication: Molecular identification and assessment of bacterial contamination of frozen local and imported meat and chicken in Basrah, Iraq using 16S rDNA gene. Biodiversitas 23(3): 1598-1604. DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d230350.
Mohammad, A. J., Alyousif, N. A., Al-Mosawi, U. A. S. & Al-Hejuje, M. M. (2021). Assessment of water quality supplies in some areas of Basrah Governorate, Iraq. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 27(1): 408-413.
Mokaizh, A. A. B., Nour, A. H., Alazaiza, M. Y., Mustafa, S. E., Omer, M. S. & Nassani, D. E. (2024). Extraction and characterization of biological phytoconstituents of Commiphora gileadensis leaves using soxhlet method. Processes, 12(8): 1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081567
Muhammad-Ali, M. A., Jasim, E. Q. & Mohammed, A. I. (2025). Synthesis, Molecular docking study and antimicrobial evaluation of some 1, 2, 4-Triazole compounds. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 59(1s): s375-s389
Nigussie, D., Davey, G., Legesse, B. A., Fekadu, A. & Makonnen, E. (2021). Antibacterial activity of methanol extracts of the leaves of three medicinal plants against selected bacteria isolated from wounds of lymphoedema patients. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 21(1): 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-020-03183-0
Oselusi, S. O., Sibuyi, N. R., Meyer, M., Meyer, S. & Madiehe, A. M. (2025). Phytofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Ehretia rigida leaf aqueous extract, their characterization, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Materials Today Sustainability, 29: 101059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2024.101059
Rani, D., Rana, V., Rani, A., Malyan, S. K., Kumar, A., Dhaka, R. K. & Rana, A. (2024). Microbial contamination in municipal water: Potential sources, analytical methods and remediation strategies. In algae based bioelectrochemical systems for carbon sequestration, Carbon storage, Bioremediation and Bioproduct generation (pp. 125-141). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91023-1.00009-0
Rathi, B. S., Kumar, P. S. & Vo, D. V. N. (2021). Critical review on hazardous pollutants in water environment: Occurrence, monitoring, fate, removal technologies and risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 797: 149134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149134
Samuggam, S., Chinni, S. V., Mutusamy, P., Gopinath, S. C., Anbu, P., Venugopal, V. & Enugutti, B. (2021). Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Spondias mombin extract and their antimicrobial activity against biofilm-producing bacteria. Molecules, 26(9): 2681. DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092681
Sankeshwari, R. M., Ankola, A. V., Bhat, K. & Hullatti, K. (2018). Soxhlet versus cold maceration: Which method gives better antimicrobial activity to licorice extract against: Streptococcus mutans:?. Journal of the Scientific Society, 45(2): 67-71. DOI: 10.4103/jss.JSS_27_18
Ssekatawa, K., Byarugaba, D. K., Kato, C. D., Wampande, E. M., Ejobi, F., Nakavuma, J. L. & Kirabira, J. B. (2021). Green strategy–based synthesis of silver nanoparticles for antibacterial applications. Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 3: 697303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2021.697303
Sumitha, S., Vasanthi, S., Shalini, S., Chinni, S. V., Gopinath, S. C., Anbu, P. & Ravichandran, V. (2018). Phyto-mediated photo catalyzed green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Durio zibethinus seed extract: antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity and photocatalytic applications. Molecules, 23(12): 3311. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123311
Tang, W., Pei, Y., Zheng, H., Zhao, Y., Shu, L. & Zhang, H. (2022). Twenty years of China's water pollution control: Experiences and challenges. Chemosphere, 295: 133875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133875
Zhan, J., Xu, S., Zhu, Y., Han, Y., Li, L., Liu, J.& Guo, X. (2024). Potential pathogenic microorganisms in rural wastewater treatment process: Succession characteristics, concentration variation, source exploration, and risk assessment. Water Research, 254: 121359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121359
Abdellatif, A. A., Alhathloul, S. S., Aljohani, A. S., Maswadeh, H., Abdallah, E. M., Hamid Musa, K. & El Hamd, M. A. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles incorporated aromatherapies utilized for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities against some clinical bacterial isolates. Bioinorganic Chemistry and Applications, 2022(1): 2432758. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2432758
Ahmed, S., Ahmad, M., Swami, B. L. & Ikram, S. (2016). A review on plants extracts mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles for antimicrobial applications: a green expertise. Journal of Advanced Research, 7(1): 17-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jare.2015.02.007
Ajith, M. P.; Aswathi, M; Priyadarshini, E. & Rajamani, P. (2021). Recent innovations of nanotechnology in water treatment: A comprehensive review. Bioresource technology, 342: 126000. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.202 1.126000
Al-assdy, H. Q., Al-Tamimi, W. H. & Almansoory, A. F. (2025). Treatment Wastewater of Oil Refinery by Fe2O3 NPs produce by the novel Alishewanella Jeotgali strain HAQ8. Karbala International Journal of Modern Science, 11(2): 7. https://doi.org/10.33640/2405-609X.3404
Alharbi, N. S., Alsubhi, N. S. & Felimban, A. I. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using medicinal plants: Characterization and application. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 15(3): 109-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrras.2022.06.012
Al-Khafaji, A. M., Al-mansoory, A. F. & Alyousif, N. A. (2025). Utilizing bioflocculants produced by bacteria to remediate oil contaminated water. Pollution, 11(2): 440-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22059/poll.2024.380806.2507
Altammar, K. A. (2023). A review on nanoparticles: characteristics, synthesis, applications, and challenges. Frontiers in Microbiology, 14: 1155622. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1155622
Alyousif, N. A., Al-Tamimi, W. H. & Al-luaibi, Y. Y. (2023). Antimicrobial and antioxidant activity of rhamnolipids biosurfactant is produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Revista Bionatura, 8: 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.21931/RB/2023.08.04.25
Anand, U., Carpena, M., Kowalska-Góralska, M., Garcia-Perez, P., Sunita, K., Bontempi, E. & Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Safer plant-based nanoparticles for combating antibiotic resistance in bacteria: A comprehensive review on its potential applications, recent advances, and future perspective. Science of the Total Environment, 821: 153472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153472
Csakvari, A. C., Moisa, C., Radu, D. G., Olariu, L. M., Lupitu, A. I., Panda, A. O. & Copolovici, D. M. (2021). Green synthesis, characterization, and antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles obtained by using diverse varieties of Cannabis sativa leaf extracts. Molecules, 26(13): 4041. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134041
Dilbar, S., Sher, H., Ali, H., Ullah, R., Ali, A. & Ullah, Z. (2023). Antibacterial efficacy of green synthesized silver nanoparticles using Salvia nubicola extract against Ralstonia solanacearum, the causal agent of vascular wilt of tomato. ACS Omega, 8(34): 31155-31167. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.3c03164
Fahim, M., Shahzaib, A., Nishat, N., Jahan, A., Bhat, T. A. & Inam, A. (2024). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles: A comprehensive review of methods, influencing factors, and applications. JCIS Open, 100125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jciso.2024.100125
Feng, D., Zhang, R., Zhang, M., Fang, A.& Shi, F. (2022). Synthesis of eco-friendly silver nanoparticles using glycyrrhizin and evaluation of their antibacterial ability. Nanomaterials, 12(15): 2636. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano12152636
Ghabban, H., Alnomasy, S. F., Almohammed, H., Al Idriss, O. M., Rabea, S. & Eltahir, Y. (2022). Antibacterial, cytotoxic, and cellular mechanisms of green synthesized silver nanoparticles against some cariogenic bacteria (Streptococcus mutans and Actinomyces viscosus). Journal of Nanomaterials, 2022 (1): 9721736. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/9721736
Ghani, S., Rafiee, B., Bahrami, S., Mokhtari, A., Aghamiri, S. & Yarian, F. (2022). Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the plant extracts of vitex agnus castus L: An ecofriendly approach to overcome antibiotic resistance. International Journal of Preventive Medicine, 13: 133. DOI: 10.4103/ijpvm.ijpvm_140_22
Ghavam, M. (2023). Antibacterial potential of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using Nepeta sessilifolia Bunge and Salvia hydrangea DC. ex Benth. extracts from the natural habitats of Iran's Rangelands. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 23(1): 299. DOI: 10.1186/s12906-023-04101-w
Hamid, L. L., Ali, A. Y., Ohmayed, M. M., Ramizy, A. & Mutter, T. Y. (2024). Antimicrobial activity of silver nanoparticles and cold plasma in the treatment of hospital wastewater. Kuwait Journal of Science, 51(2): 100212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjs.2024.100212
Hashemi, Z., Shirzadi-Ahoodashti, M. & Ebrahimzadeh, M. A. (2021). Antileishmanial and antibacterial activities of biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles using Alcea rosea extract (AR-AgNPs). Journal of Water and Environmental Nanotechnology, 6(3): 265-276. https://doi.org/10.22090/jwent.2021.03.007
Jasim, E. Q., Muhammad-Ali, M. A. & Al-Abdullah, A. A. (2024). In Vitro studies of biosynthesized nanoparticles of Dysphania aqueous leaves extract against some isolated bacteria from wounds and burns and in silico evaluations of compounds identified in its GC-MS spectra. Tropical Journal of Natural Product Research, 8(11). https://doi.org/10.26538/tjnpr/v8i11.26
Joudeh, N. & Linke, D. (2022). Nanoparticle classification, physicochemical properties, characterization, and applications: a comprehensive review for biologists. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 20(1): 262. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12951-022-01477-8
Jubair, N., Rajagopal, M., Chinnappan, S., Abdullah, N. B. & Fatima, A. (2021). Review on the antibacterial mechanism of plant‐derived compounds against multidrug‐resistant bacteria (MDR). Evidence‐Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021(1): 3663315. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3663315
Khames, S. A. S. K. & Ahmed, S. T. (2025). Evaluation of antibacterial and synergistic effects of vitex agnus-castus leaves extract on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. Iraqi journal of biotechnology, 24(SI).
Kozłowska, M., Ścibisz, I., Przybył, J. L., Laudy, A. E., Majewska, E., Tarnowska, K. & Ziarno, M. (2022). Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of extracts from selected plant material. Applied Sciences, 12(19): 9871. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12199871
Logeswari, P., Silambarasan, S. & Abraham, J. (2015). Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using plants extract and analysis of their antimicrobial property. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 19(3): 311-317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jscs.2012.04.007
Mohammadidargah, M., Pedram, P., Cabrera-Barjas, G., Delattre, C., Nesic, A., Santagata, G. & Moeini, A. (2024). Biomimetic synthesis of nanoparticles: A comprehensive review on green synthesis of nanoparticles with a focus on Prosopis farcta plant extracts and biomedical applications. Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 103277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cis.2024.103277
Mohammad, A. J. & Alyousif, N. A. (2022). Short communication: Molecular identification and assessment of bacterial contamination of frozen local and imported meat and chicken in Basrah, Iraq using 16S rDNA gene. Biodiversitas 23(3): 1598-1604. DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d230350.
Mohammad, A. J., Alyousif, N. A., Al-Mosawi, U. A. S. & Al-Hejuje, M. M. (2021). Assessment of water quality supplies in some areas of Basrah Governorate, Iraq. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 27(1): 408-413.
Mokaizh, A. A. B., Nour, A. H., Alazaiza, M. Y., Mustafa, S. E., Omer, M. S. & Nassani, D. E. (2024). Extraction and characterization of biological phytoconstituents of Commiphora gileadensis leaves using soxhlet method. Processes, 12(8): 1567. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12081567
Muhammad-Ali, M. A., Jasim, E. Q. & Mohammed, A. I. (2025). Synthesis, Molecular docking study and antimicrobial evaluation of some 1, 2, 4-Triazole compounds. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 59(1s): s375-s389
Nigussie, D., Davey, G., Legesse, B. A., Fekadu, A. & Makonnen, E. (2021). Antibacterial activity of methanol extracts of the leaves of three medicinal plants against selected bacteria isolated from wounds of lymphoedema patients. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 21(1): 2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-020-03183-0
Oselusi, S. O., Sibuyi, N. R., Meyer, M., Meyer, S. & Madiehe, A. M. (2025). Phytofabrication of silver nanoparticles using Ehretia rigida leaf aqueous extract, their characterization, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Materials Today Sustainability, 29: 101059. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtsust.2024.101059
Rani, D., Rana, V., Rani, A., Malyan, S. K., Kumar, A., Dhaka, R. K. & Rana, A. (2024). Microbial contamination in municipal water: Potential sources, analytical methods and remediation strategies. In algae based bioelectrochemical systems for carbon sequestration, Carbon storage, Bioremediation and Bioproduct generation (pp. 125-141). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91023-1.00009-0
Rathi, B. S., Kumar, P. S. & Vo, D. V. N. (2021). Critical review on hazardous pollutants in water environment: Occurrence, monitoring, fate, removal technologies and risk assessment. Science of the Total Environment, 797: 149134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149134
Samuggam, S., Chinni, S. V., Mutusamy, P., Gopinath, S. C., Anbu, P., Venugopal, V. & Enugutti, B. (2021). Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Spondias mombin extract and their antimicrobial activity against biofilm-producing bacteria. Molecules, 26(9): 2681. DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092681
Sankeshwari, R. M., Ankola, A. V., Bhat, K. & Hullatti, K. (2018). Soxhlet versus cold maceration: Which method gives better antimicrobial activity to licorice extract against: Streptococcus mutans:?. Journal of the Scientific Society, 45(2): 67-71. DOI: 10.4103/jss.JSS_27_18
Ssekatawa, K., Byarugaba, D. K., Kato, C. D., Wampande, E. M., Ejobi, F., Nakavuma, J. L. & Kirabira, J. B. (2021). Green strategy–based synthesis of silver nanoparticles for antibacterial applications. Frontiers in Nanotechnology, 3: 697303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnano.2021.697303
Sumitha, S., Vasanthi, S., Shalini, S., Chinni, S. V., Gopinath, S. C., Anbu, P. & Ravichandran, V. (2018). Phyto-mediated photo catalyzed green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Durio zibethinus seed extract: antimicrobial and cytotoxic activity and photocatalytic applications. Molecules, 23(12): 3311. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules23123311
Tang, W., Pei, Y., Zheng, H., Zhao, Y., Shu, L. & Zhang, H. (2022). Twenty years of China's water pollution control: Experiences and challenges. Chemosphere, 295: 133875. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133875
Zhan, J., Xu, S., Zhu, Y., Han, Y., Li, L., Liu, J.& Guo, X. (2024). Potential pathogenic microorganisms in rural wastewater treatment process: Succession characteristics, concentration variation, source exploration, and risk assessment. Water Research, 254: 121359. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121359
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How to Cite
Antibacterial activity of extracts and silver nanoparticles from Vitex Agnus castus against bacteria isolated from Hospital wastewater. (2026). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 18(1), 16-28. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v18i1.7024
