Isolation of Bacillus spp. with multi-enzyme activity for enhanced degradation of kitchen organic waste and PLA/PBAT bioplastics
Article Main
Abstract
The increasing accumulation of municipal organic waste along with bioplastics presents a pressing environmental challenge. The present study aimed to isolate and characterize multi-enzyme-producing bacteria from wood-feeding termites and mangrove soil, with a focus on their potential applications in the degradation of organic waste and bioplastics.
Bacterial isolates were collected from termites and mangrove soil samples, and subjected to preliminary screening. Cellulolytic activity was assessed using carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) agar plates and quantitative CMCase assays. Multi-enzyme
production was evaluated through specific enzymatic assays for amylase, protease, lipase, gelatinase, and ligninase activities. Bacterial identification was performed using biochemical tests and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Kitchen waste degradation studies were conducted over 90 days under controlled conditions, while bioplastic Polylactic Acid (PLA)/Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT] degradation was monitored for 45 days. Structural changes in bioplastics were analyzed using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). Among nineteen bacterial isolates (Eleven from mangrove soil (M) and eight from termites (T)), isolates M9 and T3 exhibited the highest cellulase activity. Further screening revealed their ability to produce a suite of enzymes, including amylase, protease, lipase, gelatinase, and ligninase.
Biochemical and molecular analyses identified both isolates as Bacillus spp.. These strains demonstrated effective degradation of kitchen waste over 90 days, producing a paste-like residue compared to control samples. However, only partial degradation of bioplastics (PLA/PBAT) was observed after 45 days, as confirmed by Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), indicating limited structural changes. The findings underscore the potential of Bacillus spp. from natural ecosystems as bioresource candidates for multi-enzyme production and organic waste bioconversion.
However, the limited bioplastic degradation observed also raises concerns about the environmental persistence of commercially marketed bioplastics. This study emphasizes the significance of examining microbial diversity for sustainable waste
management solutions and challenges the degradability claims associated with certain bioplastic products.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Bacillus sp., Bioplastics, Mangrove, Organic waste, Termites
References
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Boondaeng, A., Keabpimai, J., Trakunjae, C., Vaithanomsat, P., Srichola, P. & Niyomvong, N. (2024). Cellulase production under solid-state fermentation by aspergillus sp.. IN5: Parameter optimization and application. Heliyon, 10(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26601
Chhetri, R. B., Silwal, P., Jyapu, P., Maharjan, Y., Lamsal, T. & Basnet, A. (2022). Biodegradation of organic waste using Bacillus species isolated from soil. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, 10(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v10i2.44303
Dar, M. A., Xie, R., Jing, L., Qing, X., Ali, S., Pandit, R. S., Shaha, C. M. & Sun, J. (2024). Elucidating the structure, and composition of bacterial symbionts in the gut regions of wood-feeding termite, Coptotermes formosanus and their functional profile towards lignocellulolytic systems. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1395568
Deng, J., Chen, Q., Hu, B., Li, W., Jia, M., Shi, Y., Xiong, S., Bai, J. & Yin, H. (2021). Synergic effect of adsorption and biodegradation by microsphere immobilizing Bacillus velezensis for enhanced removal organics in slaughter wastewater. Processes, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071145
Gupta, P., Samant, K.& Sahu, A. (2012). Isolation of cellulose-degrading bacteria and determination of their cellulolytic potential. International Journal of Microbiology, 2012, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/578925
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Jayakumar, A., Radoor, S., Siengchin, S., Shin, G. H.& Kim, J. T. (2023). Recent progress of bioplastics in their properties, standards, certifications and regulations: A review. Science of The Total Environment, 878, 163156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163156
Kamran, A., Bibi, Z.& Kamal, M. (2015). Screening and enhanced production of protease from a thermophilic Bacillus species. Pak. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 48(1), 15-17.
Khoshnevisan, B., Tsapekos, P., Zhang, Y., Valverde-Pérez, B. & Angelidaki, I. (2019). Urban biowaste valorization by coupling anaerobic digestion and single cell protein production. Bioresource Technology, 290, 121743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121743
Lam, M. Q., Oates, N. C., Leadbeater, D. R., Goh, K. M., Yahya, A., Md Salleh, M., Ibrahim, Z., Bruce, N. C. & Chong, C. S. (2022). Genomic analysis to elucidate the Lignocellulose degrading apability of a new halophile Robertkochia solimangrovi. Genes, 13(11), 2135. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13112135
Lamparelli, R. de C. B. C., Montagna, L. S., da Silva, A. P. B., do Amaral Montanheiro, T. L. & Lemes, A. P. (2022). Study of the biodegradation of PLA/PBAT films after biodegradation tests in soil and the aqueous medium. Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 12(1), 833–846. https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC121.833846
Laothanachareon, T., Bunterngsook, B. & Champreda, V. (2021). Profiling multi-enzyme activities of Aspergillus niger strains growing on various agro-industrial residues. 3 Biotech, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-021-03086-y
Lyu, J. S. & Han, J. (2023). Scale-up fabrication of a biodegradable PBAT/PLA composite film compatibilized with a chain extender for industrial agricultural mulch film application. Composites Part C: Open Access, 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2023.100397
Mahmood, R., Afrin, N., Jolly, S. N. & Shilpi, R. Y. (2014). Isolation and identification of cellulose-degrading bacteria from different types of samples. World Journal of Environmental Biosciences, 9(2), 8-13.
Manandhar S and Sharma S (2017) Biochemical test: Practical approach to microbiology. National Book Centre.
Miller, G. L. (1959). Use of dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Analytical Chemistry, 31(3), 426–428. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60147a030
Mulyani, P. D., Albab, M. R. U. & Purwestri, Y. A. (2021). Characterization of Lignocellulolytic Bacteria from gut of termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae). Jurnal Biologi Tropis, 21(2), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.29303/jbt.v21i2.2737
Munawar, A., Shaheen, M., Ramzan, S., Masih, S. A., Jabeen, F., Younis, T. & Aslam, M. (2023). DIVERISTY and enzymatic potential of indigenous bacteria from unexplored contaminted soils in Faisalabad. Heliyon, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15256
Nielsen, C., Rahman, A., Rehman, A. U., Walsh, M. K. & Miller, C. D. (2017). Food waste conversion to microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Microbial Biotechnology, 10(6), 1338–1352. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.12776
Olajuyin, A. M., Yang, M., Thygesen, A., Tian, J., Mu, T. & Xing, J. (2019). Effective production of succinic acid from coconut water (Cocos nucifera) by metabolically engineered Escherichia coli with overexpression of Bacillus subtilis pyruvate carboxylase. Biotechnology Reports, 24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00378
Ozzeybek, M. & Cekmecelioglu, D. (2022). Formulation of apple pomace, orange peel, and hazelnut shell mix for co-production of bacterial pectinase and cellulase enzymes by mixture design method. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14(2), 1853–1861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02409-0
Paulsen, E., Lema, P., Martínez-Romero, D. & García-Viguera, C. (2022). Use of PLA/PBAT stretch-cling film as an ecofriendly alternative for individual wrapping of broccoli heads. Scientia Horticulturae, 304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2022.111260
Probst, M., Fritschi, A., Wagner, A. & Insam, H. (2013). Biowaste: A Lactobacillus habitat and lactic acid fermentation substrate. Bioresource Technology, 143, 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.06.022
Qattan, S. Y. A. (2025). Harnessing bacterial consortia for effective bioremediation: targeted removal of heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and persistent pollutants. In Environmental Sciences Europe, ( 37, Issue 1). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01103-y
Rahmadi Aswan, D., Alamsjah, F. & Agustien, A. (2024). Isolation and screening of cellulolytic bacteria from mangrove waters in Mandeh, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies, (IJPSAT, 45(2), 163–170.
Rastogi, M., Nandal, M. & Khosla, B. (2020). Microbes as vital additives for solid waste composting. In Heliyon (Vol. 6, Issue 2). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03343
Rawway, M., Ali, S. G., & Badawy, A. S. (2018). Isolation and identification of cellulose degrading bacteria from different sources at assiut governorate (Upper Egypt). Journal of Ecology of Health & Environment, 6(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.18576/jehe/060103
Sadhu, S., Saha, P., Sen, S. K., Mayilraj, S. & Maiti, T. K. (2013). Production, purification and characterization of a novel thermotolerant endoglucanase (CMCase) from Bacillus strain isolated from cow dung. SpringerPlus, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-10
Saha, A. & Santra, S. C. (2014). Isolation and characterization of bacteria isolated from municipal solid waste for production of industrial enzymes and waste degradation. Journal of Microbiology & Experimentation, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00003
Sambrook, J. & Russell, D. W. (2001). Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual (3rd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Shrestha, S., Chio, C., Khatiwada, J. R., Kognou, A. L. M. & Qin, W. (2022). Formulation of the agro-waste mixture for multi-enzyme (pectinase, xylanase, and cellulase) production by mixture design method exploiting Streptomyces sp. Bioresource Technology Reports, 19, 101142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2022.101142
Siddiqua, A., Hahladakis, J. N. & Al-Attiya, W. A. K. A. (2022). An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(39), 58514–58536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21578-z
Sonune, N. & Garode, A. (2018). Isolation, characterization and identification of extracellular enzyme producer Bacillus licheniformis from municipal wastewater and evaluation of their biodegradability. Biotechnology Research and Innovation, 2(1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biori.2018.03.001
Thygesen, A., Tsapekos, P., Alvarado-Morales, M. & Angelidaki, I. (2021). Valorization of municipal organic waste into purified lactic acid. Bioresource Technology, 342, 125933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125933
Tuo, B., Yan, J., Fan, B., Yang, Z., & Liu, J. (2012). Biodegradation characteristics and bioaugmentation potential of a novel quinoline-degrading strain of Bacillus sp. isolated from petroleum-contaminated soil. Bioresource Technology, 107, 55–60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.114
Umashankar, N., Meghashree, H. M., Benherlal, P. S. & Chavan, M. (2018). Isolation and screening of lignin degrading bacteria from different natural and organic sources. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(12), 609–617. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.712.075
Vasile, C., Pamfil, D., Râpă, M., Darie-Niţă, R. N., Mitelut, A. C., Popa, E. E., Popescu, P. A., Draghici, M. C. & Popa, M. E. (2018). Study of the soil burial degradation of some PLA/CS biocomposites. Composites Part B: Engineering, 142, 251–262. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.01.026
Yin, J., Yu, X., Wang, K. & Shen, D. (2016). Acidogenic fermentation of the main substrates of food waste to produce volatile fatty acids. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 41(46), 21713–21720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.094
Yin, L.-J., Huang, P.-S. & Lin, H.-H. (2010). Isolation of cellulase-producing bacteria and characterization of
the cellulase from the isolated bacterium Cellulom onas Sp. YJ5. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(17), 9833–9837. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1019104
Baskaran, V., Mahalakshmi A. & Prabavathy V.R. (2023). Mangroves: A hotspot for novel bacterial and archaeal diversity. Rhizosphere, 27, 100748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2023.100748
Boondaeng, A., Keabpimai, J., Trakunjae, C., Vaithanomsat, P., Srichola, P. & Niyomvong, N. (2024). Cellulase production under solid-state fermentation by aspergillus sp.. IN5: Parameter optimization and application. Heliyon, 10(5). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26601
Chhetri, R. B., Silwal, P., Jyapu, P., Maharjan, Y., Lamsal, T. & Basnet, A. (2022). Biodegradation of organic waste using Bacillus species isolated from soil. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, 10(2), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijasbt.v10i2.44303
Dar, M. A., Xie, R., Jing, L., Qing, X., Ali, S., Pandit, R. S., Shaha, C. M. & Sun, J. (2024). Elucidating the structure, and composition of bacterial symbionts in the gut regions of wood-feeding termite, Coptotermes formosanus and their functional profile towards lignocellulolytic systems. Frontiers in Microbiology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2024.1395568
Deng, J., Chen, Q., Hu, B., Li, W., Jia, M., Shi, Y., Xiong, S., Bai, J. & Yin, H. (2021). Synergic effect of adsorption and biodegradation by microsphere immobilizing Bacillus velezensis for enhanced removal organics in slaughter wastewater. Processes, 9(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9071145
Gupta, P., Samant, K.& Sahu, A. (2012). Isolation of cellulose-degrading bacteria and determination of their cellulolytic potential. International Journal of Microbiology, 2012, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/578925
Holt, J. G., Krieg, N. R., Sneath, P. H. A., Staley, J. T. & Williams, S. T. (1994). Bergey’s manual of determinative bacteriology (9th ed.). Williams & Wilkins.
Jayakumar, A., Radoor, S., Siengchin, S., Shin, G. H.& Kim, J. T. (2023). Recent progress of bioplastics in their properties, standards, certifications and regulations: A review. Science of The Total Environment, 878, 163156. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163156
Kamran, A., Bibi, Z.& Kamal, M. (2015). Screening and enhanced production of protease from a thermophilic Bacillus species. Pak. J. Biochem. Mol. Biol., 48(1), 15-17.
Khoshnevisan, B., Tsapekos, P., Zhang, Y., Valverde-Pérez, B. & Angelidaki, I. (2019). Urban biowaste valorization by coupling anaerobic digestion and single cell protein production. Bioresource Technology, 290, 121743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2019.121743
Lam, M. Q., Oates, N. C., Leadbeater, D. R., Goh, K. M., Yahya, A., Md Salleh, M., Ibrahim, Z., Bruce, N. C. & Chong, C. S. (2022). Genomic analysis to elucidate the Lignocellulose degrading apability of a new halophile Robertkochia solimangrovi. Genes, 13(11), 2135. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes13112135
Lamparelli, R. de C. B. C., Montagna, L. S., da Silva, A. P. B., do Amaral Montanheiro, T. L. & Lemes, A. P. (2022). Study of the biodegradation of PLA/PBAT films after biodegradation tests in soil and the aqueous medium. Biointerface Research in Applied Chemistry, 12(1), 833–846. https://doi.org/10.33263/BRIAC121.833846
Laothanachareon, T., Bunterngsook, B. & Champreda, V. (2021). Profiling multi-enzyme activities of Aspergillus niger strains growing on various agro-industrial residues. 3 Biotech, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-021-03086-y
Lyu, J. S. & Han, J. (2023). Scale-up fabrication of a biodegradable PBAT/PLA composite film compatibilized with a chain extender for industrial agricultural mulch film application. Composites Part C: Open Access, 12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomc.2023.100397
Mahmood, R., Afrin, N., Jolly, S. N. & Shilpi, R. Y. (2014). Isolation and identification of cellulose-degrading bacteria from different types of samples. World Journal of Environmental Biosciences, 9(2), 8-13.
Manandhar S and Sharma S (2017) Biochemical test: Practical approach to microbiology. National Book Centre.
Miller, G. L. (1959). Use of dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for determination of reducing sugar. Analytical Chemistry, 31(3), 426–428. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60147a030
Mulyani, P. D., Albab, M. R. U. & Purwestri, Y. A. (2021). Characterization of Lignocellulolytic Bacteria from gut of termite (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae). Jurnal Biologi Tropis, 21(2), 543–550. https://doi.org/10.29303/jbt.v21i2.2737
Munawar, A., Shaheen, M., Ramzan, S., Masih, S. A., Jabeen, F., Younis, T. & Aslam, M. (2023). DIVERISTY and enzymatic potential of indigenous bacteria from unexplored contaminted soils in Faisalabad. Heliyon, 9(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e15256
Nielsen, C., Rahman, A., Rehman, A. U., Walsh, M. K. & Miller, C. D. (2017). Food waste conversion to microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Microbial Biotechnology, 10(6), 1338–1352. Portico. https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.12776
Olajuyin, A. M., Yang, M., Thygesen, A., Tian, J., Mu, T. & Xing, J. (2019). Effective production of succinic acid from coconut water (Cocos nucifera) by metabolically engineered Escherichia coli with overexpression of Bacillus subtilis pyruvate carboxylase. Biotechnology Reports, 24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00378
Ozzeybek, M. & Cekmecelioglu, D. (2022). Formulation of apple pomace, orange peel, and hazelnut shell mix for co-production of bacterial pectinase and cellulase enzymes by mixture design method. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14(2), 1853–1861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-02409-0
Paulsen, E., Lema, P., Martínez-Romero, D. & García-Viguera, C. (2022). Use of PLA/PBAT stretch-cling film as an ecofriendly alternative for individual wrapping of broccoli heads. Scientia Horticulturae, 304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2022.111260
Probst, M., Fritschi, A., Wagner, A. & Insam, H. (2013). Biowaste: A Lactobacillus habitat and lactic acid fermentation substrate. Bioresource Technology, 143, 647–652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2013.06.022
Qattan, S. Y. A. (2025). Harnessing bacterial consortia for effective bioremediation: targeted removal of heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and persistent pollutants. In Environmental Sciences Europe, ( 37, Issue 1). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-025-01103-y
Rahmadi Aswan, D., Alamsjah, F. & Agustien, A. (2024). Isolation and screening of cellulolytic bacteria from mangrove waters in Mandeh, West Sumatera Province, Indonesia. International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies, (IJPSAT, 45(2), 163–170.
Rastogi, M., Nandal, M. & Khosla, B. (2020). Microbes as vital additives for solid waste composting. In Heliyon (Vol. 6, Issue 2). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03343
Rawway, M., Ali, S. G., & Badawy, A. S. (2018). Isolation and identification of cellulose degrading bacteria from different sources at assiut governorate (Upper Egypt). Journal of Ecology of Health & Environment, 6(1), 15–24. https://doi.org/10.18576/jehe/060103
Sadhu, S., Saha, P., Sen, S. K., Mayilraj, S. & Maiti, T. K. (2013). Production, purification and characterization of a novel thermotolerant endoglucanase (CMCase) from Bacillus strain isolated from cow dung. SpringerPlus, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-10
Saha, A. & Santra, S. C. (2014). Isolation and characterization of bacteria isolated from municipal solid waste for production of industrial enzymes and waste degradation. Journal of Microbiology & Experimentation, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.15406/jmen.2014.01.00003
Sambrook, J. & Russell, D. W. (2001). Molecular cloning: A laboratory manual (3rd ed.). Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.
Shrestha, S., Chio, C., Khatiwada, J. R., Kognou, A. L. M. & Qin, W. (2022). Formulation of the agro-waste mixture for multi-enzyme (pectinase, xylanase, and cellulase) production by mixture design method exploiting Streptomyces sp. Bioresource Technology Reports, 19, 101142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2022.101142
Siddiqua, A., Hahladakis, J. N. & Al-Attiya, W. A. K. A. (2022). An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(39), 58514–58536. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21578-z
Sonune, N. & Garode, A. (2018). Isolation, characterization and identification of extracellular enzyme producer Bacillus licheniformis from municipal wastewater and evaluation of their biodegradability. Biotechnology Research and Innovation, 2(1), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biori.2018.03.001
Thygesen, A., Tsapekos, P., Alvarado-Morales, M. & Angelidaki, I. (2021). Valorization of municipal organic waste into purified lactic acid. Bioresource Technology, 342, 125933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.125933
Tuo, B., Yan, J., Fan, B., Yang, Z., & Liu, J. (2012). Biodegradation characteristics and bioaugmentation potential of a novel quinoline-degrading strain of Bacillus sp. isolated from petroleum-contaminated soil. Bioresource Technology, 107, 55–60. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.12.114
Umashankar, N., Meghashree, H. M., Benherlal, P. S. & Chavan, M. (2018). Isolation and screening of lignin degrading bacteria from different natural and organic sources. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 7(12), 609–617. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2018.712.075
Vasile, C., Pamfil, D., Râpă, M., Darie-Niţă, R. N., Mitelut, A. C., Popa, E. E., Popescu, P. A., Draghici, M. C. & Popa, M. E. (2018). Study of the soil burial degradation of some PLA/CS biocomposites. Composites Part B: Engineering, 142, 251–262. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2018.01.026
Yin, J., Yu, X., Wang, K. & Shen, D. (2016). Acidogenic fermentation of the main substrates of food waste to produce volatile fatty acids. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 41(46), 21713–21720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2016.07.094
Yin, L.-J., Huang, P.-S. & Lin, H.-H. (2010). Isolation of cellulase-producing bacteria and characterization of
the cellulase from the isolated bacterium Cellulom onas Sp. YJ5. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58(17), 9833–9837. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf1019104
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Isolation of Bacillus spp. with multi-enzyme activity for enhanced degradation of kitchen organic waste and PLA/PBAT bioplastics. (2025). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(4), 1718-1726. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i4.6948
