Comprehending local reliance on subsistence farming for protected area management: A case of Yankari Game Reserve, Bauchi State Nigeria
Article Main
Abstract
Protected areas are, crucial in global biodiversity conservation; however, their success is uncertain when adjacent rural settlements depend on natural resources for their livelihoods. Subsistence farming, which is important for community income, can also jeopardize the long-term viability of protected areas. The present study evaluates household dependence on subsistence farming in the vicinity of Yankari Game Reserve, Bauchi State, Nigeria. Primary data for this research were gathered through a household survey in the participating villages, utilizing questionnaires. An Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression was performed using SPSS to estimate the reliance of farm products. The study revealed that the dependence of rural communities on subsistence farming is strongly linked to household socioeconomic factors including age, household income, and farm income. The observed negative relationship between household reliance on farm products and age (t =-2.883, p < .004), suggests that elderly villagers tend to participate less in farming activities. The positive correlation between household reliance on farm products and household income (t = 6.622, p < .001) suggests that as households earn higher incomes, they tend to invest more in farming activities. Conversely, the negative relationship between farm products and forest income (t =-10.347, p < .001) indicated that respondents with higher farm incomes have a reduced reliance on natural forest products. Thus, effective conservation policies and initiatives should adopt a holistic approach, addressing not only the reduction of biodiversity loss, especially for endangered species, but also the influence of local livelihoods and resource use, which are key drivers of ecosystem degradation and environmental change.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Biodiversity, Farming, livelihoods , livestock, Protected area
References
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Creswell J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods approaches. Ed. Sage publications.
Curtis, P. G., Slay, C. M., Harris, N. L., Tyukavina, A. & Hansen, M. C. (2018). Classifying drivers of global forest loss. Science, 361(6407), 1108–1111. doi:10.1126/science. aau3445
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Newton, A. C. (2011). Social-ecological Resilience and Biodiversity Conservation in a 900-year-old Protected area. Ecology and Society: A Journal of Integrative Science for Resilience and Sustainability, 16(4), 1-23. doi:10.5751/es-04308-160413
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Osunsina, I. O., Ogunjinmi, A. A., Yisau, M. A., Inah, E. I.& Osunsina, J. (2018). Management effectiveness of protected areas: A case study of four national parks in Nigeria. Applied Tropical Agriculture, 23(2), 155–165.
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Osemeobo, G. J. (1988). The human causes of forest depletion in Nigeria. Environmental Conservation, 15(1), 17–28. doi:10.1017/s0376892900028411
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Rankoana, S. A. (2022). A description of small-scale farmers’ indigenous household livelihood strategies in dikgale community in Limpopo province, South Africa. Eurasian Journal of Social Sciences, 10(3), 197–203. doi:10.15604/ejss.2022.10.03.004
Saiyut, P., Bunyasiri, I., Sirisupluxana, P. & Mahathanaseth, I. (2018). The impact of age structure on technical efficiency in Thai agriculture. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 40, 539–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.12.015..
Stone, L. S.& Nyaupane, G. P. (2016). Africans and protected areas: North–South perspectives. Annals of Tourism Research, 58, 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2016.03.003
Sharpley, R. (2009). Tourism development and the environment: Beyond sustainability. Ed. London, England: Earth scan.
Siphesihle, Q. & Lelethu, M. (2020). Factors affecting subsistence farming in rural areas of nyandeni local municipality in the Eastern cape province. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 48(2), 92 – 105. doi:10.17159/2413-3221/2020/v48n2a540
Soe, K. T. & Yeo-Chang, Y. (2019). Perceptions of forest-dependent communities toward participation in forest conservation: A case study in Bago Yoma, South-Central Myanmar. Forest Policy and Economics, 100, 129–141. doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2018.11.009
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Uhl, B., Wölfling, M. & Fiedler, K. (2021). Local, forest stand and landscape-scale correlates of plant communities in isolated coastal forest reserves. Plant Biosystems, 155(3), 457–469. doi:10.1080/11263504.2020.1762776.
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Vihi, S. K., Okeke-Agulu, K. I., Selzing, P. M., Henry, U. I., Henry, M. U., Zaman, E. Y. & Ode, M. Z. (2024). Socio-economic determinants of households’ dependence on forest resources. A case of forested communities in Quan’pan local government area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 28(1), 243–251. doi:10.4314/jasem. v28i1.28.
Vijay, V.& Armsworth, P. R. (2021). Pervasive cropland in protected areas highlight trade-offs between conservation and food security. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(4), e2010121118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010121118
Vezina, B., Ranaivoson, A., Razafimanahaka, J., Andriafidison, D., Andrianirina, H., Ahamadi, K., …& Gardner, C. (2020). Understanding livelihoods for protected area management: Insights from northern Madagascar. Conservation and Society, 18(4), 327. doi:10.4103/cs.cs_19_144
Wildlife conservation society (WCS), 2021. Retrieved Juned 10, 2023, https://www.wcsnigeria.org
Wale, E., Nkoana, M. A. & Mkuna, E. (2022). Determinants of rural household livelihood dependence on
non-timber forest products: A case study from Inanda Community, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.788815
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Anang, B. T. & Apedo, C. K. (2023). The influence of off-farm work on farm income among smallholder farm households in northern Ghana. Cogent Economics and Finance, 11(1), 107–121. doi:10.1080/23322039.2023.21 96861
Anang, B. T. Nkrumah-Ennin, K. & Nyaaba, J. A. (2020). Does off-farm work improve farm income? Empirical evidence from Tolon District in northern Ghana. Advances in Agriculture, 2020, 1–8. doi:10.1155/2020/1406594
Baiphethi, M. N. & Jacobs, P. T. (2009). The contribution of subsistence farming to food security in South Africa. Agrekon, 48(4), 459–482. doi:10.1080/03031853.2009.9523836
Brockington, D., Igoe, J. & Schmidt-Soltau, K. (2006). Conservation, human rights, and poverty reduction: Conservation, human rights, and poverty reduction. Conservation Biology: The Journal of the Society for Conservation Biology, 20(1), 250–252. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00335.x
Chilongo, T. (2014). Livelihood strategies and forest reliance in Malawi. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 23(3), 188–210. doi:10.1080/14728028.2014.922449
Creswell J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed methods approaches. Ed. Sage publications.
Curtis, P. G., Slay, C. M., Harris, N. L., Tyukavina, A. & Hansen, M. C. (2018). Classifying drivers of global forest loss. Science, 361(6407), 1108–1111. doi:10.1126/science. aau3445
Dadi, W., Mulegeta, M. & Simie, N. (2022). Urbanization and its effects on income diversification of farming households in Adama district, Ethiopia. Cogent Economics and Finance, 10(1), 2149447-214. doi:10.1080/23322039.2022.2149447
Dudley, N. (2008). Guidelines for Applying Protected Area Management Categories. Ed. Gland, Switzerland, IUCN.
Department for International Development (DFID) (1999). Sustainable livelihoods guidance sheets. Retrieved July 10, 2023, https://wfp.tind.io/search?f1=author&as=1&sf=title&so=a&rm=&m1=p&p1=Carney%2C%20D.&ln=en
Ezealor, A. U. (2001). Important bird areas in Africa and associated islands. In: L. C. D. Fishpool & M. I. Evans.Ed. Priority Sites for Conservation (pp 673-692). Newbury and Cambridge, UK.
Ellis F. (2000). Rural livelihoods and diversity in developing countries. Ed. Oxford university press.
Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P. & Norberg, J. (2005). Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 30(1) : 441–473. doi: 10.1146/annurev.energy.30.050504.144511
Geldmann, J., Manica, A., Burgess, N. D., Coad, L.& Balmford, A. (2019). A global-level assessment of the effectiveness of protected areas at resisting anthropogenic pressures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(46), 23209–23215. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1908221116
Gibson, L., Lee, T. M., Koh, L. P., Brook, B. W., Gardner, T. A., Barlow, J. … Sodhi, N. S. (2011). Primary forests are irreplaceable for sustaining tropical biodiversity. Nature, 478(7369), 378–381. doi:10.1038/nature10425.
Gujarati, D.N. & Porter, D.C. (2009). Basic econometrics. 5th Ed. McGraw Hill Inc.
Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2018). Multivariate data analysis. Ed. Cengage learning. London.
Hlaing, Z. C., Kamiyama, C. & Saito, O. (2017). Interaction between rural people’s basic needs and forest products: A case study of the Katha District of Myanmar. International Journal of Forestry Research, 2017, 1–18. doi:10.1155/2017/2105012
Ibekwe, U. C., Eze, C. C., Ohajianya, D. O., Orebiyi, J. S., Onyemauwa, C. S. & Korie, O. C. (2010). Determinants of nonfarm income among farm households in Southeast Nigeria. Academia Arena, 2, 58–61. http://www.sciencepub.net/academia/aa0208/03_3272aa0208_29_33.pdf
Keller, E. (2008). The banana plant and the moon: Conservation and the Malagasy ethos of life in Masoala, Madagascar. American Ethnologist, 35(4), 650–664. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2008.00103.x
Kuang, Y., Zhou, H.& Yin, L. (2024). Assessment of the impact of land use on biodiversity based on multiple scenarios—A case study of southwest China. Diversity, 16(10), 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/d16100630
Lowder, S. K., Sánchez, M. V.& Bertini, R. (2021). Which farms feed the world and has farmland become more concentrated? World Development, 142(105455), 105455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105455
Mascia, M. B. & Pailler, S. (2011). Protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) and its conservation implications: PADDD and its implications. Conservation Letters, 4(1), 9–20. doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2010.00147.x
Mazibuko, N., Antwi, M. & Rubhara, T. (2020). Agricultural infrastructure as the driver of emerging farmers’ income in South Africa. A stochastic frontier approach. Agronomia Colombiana, 38(2), 261–271. doi:10.15446/agroncolomb.v38n2.81292
Mbaiwa, J.E. (2021). Economic development, tourism and conservation in developing countries. In: J. Saarinen & J. M. Rogerson. Ed. Tourism, Change and the global South (pp49-51). Abingdon, Oxon, New York, Routledge.
Menton, M., Larrea, C., Latorre, S., Martinez-Alier, J., Peck, M., Temper, L. & Walter, M. (2020). Environmental justice and the SDGs: from synergies to gaps and contradictions. Sustainability Science, 15(6), 1621–1636. doi:10.1007/s11625-020-00789-8
Munthali, S. M. & Mkanda, F. X. (2002). The plight of Malawi’s wildlife: Is translocation of animals the solution? Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 751–768. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1015382328614
Newton, A. C. (2011). Social-ecological Resilience and Biodiversity Conservation in a 900-year-old Protected area. Ecology and Society: A Journal of Integrative Science for Resilience and Sustainability, 16(4), 1-23. doi:10.5751/es-04308-160413
National Bureau of Statistics (NBS). (2024). Nigerian gross domestic product report. Abuja, Nigeria. Retrieved from https://businessday.ng/agriculture/article/agric-gdp-share-rises-3-2-in-first-quarter-2025/
Nigeria fifth biodiversity report (2015). Nigeria fifth biodiversity report. federal ministry of environment. retrieved from https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ng/ng-nr-05-en.pdf
Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social research methods: Qualitative and Quantitative approaches. Ed. Pearson Education Limited.
Osunsina, I. O., Ogunjinmi, A. A., Yisau, M. A., Inah, E. I.& Osunsina, J. (2018). Management effectiveness of protected areas: A case study of four national parks in Nigeria. Applied Tropical Agriculture, 23(2), 155–165.
Odan, E. (2006). Yankari game reserve wikki camp and safari upgrade project environmental assessment (EIA) report. The Bauchi state government.
Osemeobo, G. J. (1988). The human causes of forest depletion in Nigeria. Environmental Conservation, 15(1), 17–28. doi:10.1017/s0376892900028411
Ostrom, E. (2009). A general framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science, 325(5939), 419–422. doi:10.1126/science.1172133
Parker, P., Rollins, R., Murray, G., Chafey, A. & Cannessa, R. (2017). Community perceptions of the contributions of parks to sustainability in Canada. Leisure, 41(3), 365–389. doi:10.1080/14927713.2017.1352455.
Rankoana, S. A. (2022). A description of small-scale farmers’ indigenous household livelihood strategies in dikgale community in Limpopo province, South Africa. Eurasian Journal of Social Sciences, 10(3), 197–203. doi:10.15604/ejss.2022.10.03.004
Saiyut, P., Bunyasiri, I., Sirisupluxana, P. & Mahathanaseth, I. (2018). The impact of age structure on technical efficiency in Thai agriculture. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 40, 539–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2017.12.015..
Stone, L. S.& Nyaupane, G. P. (2016). Africans and protected areas: North–South perspectives. Annals of Tourism Research, 58, 140–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2016.03.003
Sharpley, R. (2009). Tourism development and the environment: Beyond sustainability. Ed. London, England: Earth scan.
Siphesihle, Q. & Lelethu, M. (2020). Factors affecting subsistence farming in rural areas of nyandeni local municipality in the Eastern cape province. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 48(2), 92 – 105. doi:10.17159/2413-3221/2020/v48n2a540
Soe, K. T. & Yeo-Chang, Y. (2019). Perceptions of forest-dependent communities toward participation in forest conservation: A case study in Bago Yoma, South-Central Myanmar. Forest Policy and Economics, 100, 129–141. doi:10.1016/j.forpol.2018.11.009
Scales, I., 2014. The drivers of deforestation and the complexity of land use in Madagascar. In: I.R. Scales. Ed. conservation and environmental management in Madagascar (pp65-68). Routledge, London.
Urech, Z. L., Zaehringer, J. G., Rickenbach, O., Sorg, J. P. & Felber, H. R. (2015). Understanding deforestation and forest fragmentation from a livelihood perspective Madagascar. Conservation and Development, 10, 67–76. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/mcd/article/view/122216/111696
Uhl, B., Wölfling, M. & Fiedler, K. (2021). Local, forest stand and landscape-scale correlates of plant communities in isolated coastal forest reserves. Plant Biosystems, 155(3), 457–469. doi:10.1080/11263504.2020.1762776.
UNEP‑WCMC & IUCN (2021). Protected planet report 2020. UNEP‑WCMC and IUCN: Cambridge, UK; Gland, Switzerland. https://protectedplanetreport2020.protected planet.net/
Venter, F. J., Naiman, R. J., Biggs, H. C. & Pienaar, D. J. (2008). The evolution of conservation management philosophy: Science, environmental change and social adjustments in Kruger national park. Ecosystems (New York, N.Y.), 11(2), 173–192. doi:10.1007/s10021-007-9116-x
Vihi, S. K., Okeke-Agulu, K. I., Selzing, P. M., Henry, U. I., Henry, M. U., Zaman, E. Y. & Ode, M. Z. (2024). Socio-economic determinants of households’ dependence on forest resources. A case of forested communities in Quan’pan local government area of Plateau State, Nigeria. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management, 28(1), 243–251. doi:10.4314/jasem. v28i1.28.
Vijay, V.& Armsworth, P. R. (2021). Pervasive cropland in protected areas highlight trade-offs between conservation and food security. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(4), e2010121118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2010121118
Vezina, B., Ranaivoson, A., Razafimanahaka, J., Andriafidison, D., Andrianirina, H., Ahamadi, K., …& Gardner, C. (2020). Understanding livelihoods for protected area management: Insights from northern Madagascar. Conservation and Society, 18(4), 327. doi:10.4103/cs.cs_19_144
Wildlife conservation society (WCS), 2021. Retrieved Juned 10, 2023, https://www.wcsnigeria.org
Wale, E., Nkoana, M. A. & Mkuna, E. (2022). Determinants of rural household livelihood dependence on
non-timber forest products: A case study from Inanda Community, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 5. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2022.788815
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How to Cite
Comprehending local reliance on subsistence farming for protected area management: A case of Yankari Game Reserve, Bauchi State Nigeria. (2025). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(4), 1641-1650. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i4.6872
