Assessment of microbial quality of bottled water from street vendors and sundry stores in Metro Manila, Philippines
Article Main
Abstract
The consumption of bottled drinking water sold by street vendors and sundry stores in Metro Manila has increased because it is expected to be microbiologically safe and is readily available for purchase by commuters, especially in a tropical country with warm and humid weather. Thus, this study investigated the microbial quality of bottled water sold within Metro Manila. Eighty samples representing sixteen brands of bottled water were purchased and analyzed for heterotrophic plate count bacteria (HPC), total coliforms (TC), Escherichia coli and yeast/moulds (YM). The percentage of bottled water samples that did not meet the microbial quality standard was 15%, 24%, and 6% for HPC, YM, and TC, respectively in accordance to the Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. HPC bacteria and coliform concentrations were positively correlated with each other (p < 0.01), whereas HPC and YM concentrations were positively correlated with the bottled water's chloride levels (p < 0.05). Coliform isolates from five samples were identified as Klebsiella pneumoniae, with four exhibiting resistance to ampicillin but remaining susceptible to the other 20 tested antibiotics. These findings highlight potential health risks associated with generic bottled water and emphasize the need for stricter quality control to prevent waterborne diseases.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Bottled water, Coliform, Heterotropic plate count (HPC) bacteria, Microbial standard, Mold, Yeast
References
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Ameen, F., Albejad, A., Gashgari, R., Murialdo, S.& Al-Sabri, A. (2018). Diversity of fungi in bottled water in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Water Supply, 18(5), 1664–1673. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.227
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Bedada, T. L., Dera, F. A., Edicho, R. M., Gebre, S. G., Asefa, Y. B., Sima, W. G., Maheder, R. F., Negassi, T. Y.& Biegna, A. G. (2018). Mycological and bacteriological quality and safety of bottled water in Ethiopia. The Open Microbiology Journal, 12(1), 200–208. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874285801812010200
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Bonnin, R. A., Bernabeu, S., Emeraud, C., Creton, E., Vanparis, O., Naas, T., Jousset, A. B.& Dortet, L. (2022). Susceptibility of OXA-48-producing Enterobacterales to imipenem/relebactam, meropenem/vaborbactam and ceftazidime/avibactam. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 60(4), 106660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2022.106660
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CLSI. (2021). M100 Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (31st ed.). Clinical laboratory standards institute.
Curutiu, C., Iordache, F., Gurban, P., Lazar, V.& Carmen, M. C. (2020). Main microbiological pollutants of bottled water and beverages. In Bottled and Packaged water, ( pp. 1–9). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815272-0.00014-3
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DOH. (2017). Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. In Administrative-Order-No.-2017-0010 (pp. 1–37).
Doria, M. F. (2006). Bottled water versus tap water: Understanding consumer's preferences. Journal of Water and Health, 4(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.008
Duranceau, S. J., Emerson, H. P.& Wilder, R. J. (2012). Impact of bottled water storage duration and location on bacteriological quality. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 22(6), 543–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2012.677999
FDA. (2018). Antimicrobials sold or distributed for use in food-producing animals. US FDA for Veterinary Med., 2(December 2019), 227–249.
Gharibi, E., Ghalit, M., Taupin, J. D., Patris, N.& Kouotou, D. (2018). Assessment of the quality of Moroccan bottled water by application of quality indices. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA, 67(6), 576–585. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2018.022
Hamad, A. A., Sharaf, M., Hamza, M. A., Selim, S., Hetta, H. F.& El-Kazzaz, W. (2022). Investigation of the Bacterial contamination and antibiotic susceptibility profile of bacteria isolated from bottled drinking water. Microbiology Spectrum, 10(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectru m.01516-21
Herath, A. T., Abayasekara, C. L., Chandrajith, R.& Adikaram, N. K. B. (2014). Pseudomonas aeruginosa in bottled drinking water in Sri Lanka: A potential health hazard. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 14(6), 1045–1050. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.057
Mills, K., Golden, J., Bilinski, A., Beckman, A. L., McDaniel, K., Harding, A. S., France, A., Tobar, H. N.& Vecitis, C. (2018). Bacterial contamination of reusable bottled drinking water in Ecuador. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 8(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.064
Momtaz, H., Dehkordi, F. S., Rahimi, E.& Asgarifar, A. (2013). Detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae in tap water and bottled drinking water in Isfahan, Iran. BMC Public Health, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-556
Palmares, A. J., Rongalirios, J. J., Santos, M., Siggaoat, M. J., Sucgang, P. L., Tipa, N. N., Torres, J. C. A., Vasquez, C. A., Viernes, A. M.& Gellecanao, F. (2024). The antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from selected estuaries in the City of Manila, Philippines. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 21(6), 15–22. https://doi.org/DOI 10.3233/AJW240068
Palmares, A. J., Tacsagon, K. J., Taopo, F. C., Taroma, X., Toledo, S., Torres, I. S., Ventura, J. R., Villanueva, A. M., Yamat, L. G.& Gellecanao, F. (2025). Antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from Marikina River in the Philippines: Environmental and public health implications. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(2), 614–621. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i2.6552
Pant, N. D., Poudyal, N.& Bhattacharya, S. K. (2016). Bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water versus municipal tap water in Dharan municipality, Nepal. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 35(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0054-0
Puspita, T., Dharmayanti, I., Tjandrarini, D. H., Zahra, Z., Anwar, A., Irianto, J., Rachmat, B.& Yunianto, A. (2023). Packaged drinking water in Indonesia: The determinants of household in the selection and management process. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(7), 508–519. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.202 3.050
Schmidt, J.& Huang, B. (2022). The pH of bottled water commercially available in Australia and its implications for oral health. Journal of Water and Health, 20(5), 871–876. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.070
Schraft, H.& Watterworth, L. A. (2005). Enumeration of heterotrophs, fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli in water: Comparison of 3MTM PetrifilmTM plates with standard plating procedures. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 60(3), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2004.10.008
Svagzdiene, R., Lau, R.& Page, R. A. (2010). Microbiological quality of bottled water brands sold in retail outlets in New Zealand. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 10(5), 689–699. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2010.384
Tabar, S. A. M. M., Brewis, A.& Sohrabi, M. (2023). Status, social norms, or safety? understanding intended and reported bottled water use in Urban Mashhad, Iran. Journal of Water and Health, 21(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.319
Thermo Fisher Scientific. (2018). Thermo Scientific Sensititre Plate Guide for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing.
Traoré, O., Ouédraogo, N., Dembélé, R., Kpoda, D. S., Setsoafia Saba, C. K., Ouindgueta Bonkoungou, I. J.& Barro, N. (2023). Physicochemical and bacteriological quality and safety of packaged drinking water in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Water Supply, 23(10), 4346–4356. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2023.249
Walter, C. T., Kooy, M.& Prabaharyaka, I. (2017). The role of bottled drinking water in achieving sdg 6.1: An analysis of affordability and equity from Jakarta, Indonesia. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 7(4), 642–650. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.046
WHO. (2022). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda. World Health Organization.
Al-Fifi, Z., Abada, E., Al-Rajab, A. J., Mahdhi, M.& Sharma, M. (2019). Molecular identification of biological contaminants in different drinking water resources of the Jazan region, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water and Health, 17(4), 622–632. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.019
Ameen, F., Albejad, A., Gashgari, R., Murialdo, S.& Al-Sabri, A. (2018). Diversity of fungi in bottled water in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Water Supply, 18(5), 1664–1673. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2017.227
Babič, M. N., Gunde-Cimerman, N., Vargha, M., Tischner, Z., Magyar, D., Veríssimo, C., Sabino, R., Viegas, C., Meyer, W.& Brandão, J. (2017). Fungal contaminants in drinking water regulation? A tale of ecology, exposure, purification and clinical relevance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060636
Bedada, T. L., Dera, F. A., Edicho, R. M., Gebre, S. G., Asefa, Y. B., Sima, W. G., Maheder, R. F., Negassi, T. Y.& Biegna, A. G. (2018). Mycological and bacteriological quality and safety of bottled water in Ethiopia. The Open Microbiology Journal, 12(1), 200–208. https://doi.org/10.2174/1874285801812010200
Bird, P., Flannery, J., Crowley, E., Agin, J., Goins, D.& Jechorek, R. (2015). Evaluation of the 3MTM PetrifilmTM rapid yeast and mold count plate for the enumeration of yeast and mold in food: Collaborative study, first action 2014.05. Journal of AOAC International, 98(3), 767–783. https://doi.org/10.5740/jaoacint.15-006
Bonnin, R. A., Bernabeu, S., Emeraud, C., Creton, E., Vanparis, O., Naas, T., Jousset, A. B.& Dortet, L. (2022). Susceptibility of OXA-48-producing Enterobacterales to imipenem/relebactam, meropenem/vaborbactam and ceftazidime/avibactam. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 60(4), 106660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2022.106660
Burlakoti, N., Ghimire, N., Chhetri, A. B., Rawal, D. S., Pant, B. R., Upadhyaya, J., Bajgai, T. R.& Koirala, N. (2020). Physical, chemical and microbiological characterization of processed drinking water in central Nepal: Current state study. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 10(1), 157–165. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2020.111
CLSI. (2021). M100 Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (31st ed.). Clinical laboratory standards institute.
Curutiu, C., Iordache, F., Gurban, P., Lazar, V.& Carmen, M. C. (2020). Main microbiological pollutants of bottled water and beverages. In Bottled and Packaged water, ( pp. 1–9). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-815272-0.00014-3
De Queiroz, J. T. M., Heller, L., De França Doria, M., Rosenberg, M. W.& Zhouri, A. (2013). Perceptions of bottled water consumers in three Brazilian Municipalities. Journal of Water and Health, 11(3), 520–531. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.222
DOH. (2017). Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017. In Administrative-Order-No.-2017-0010 (pp. 1–37).
Doria, M. F. (2006). Bottled water versus tap water: Understanding consumer's preferences. Journal of Water and Health, 4(2), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2006.008
Duranceau, S. J., Emerson, H. P.& Wilder, R. J. (2012). Impact of bottled water storage duration and location on bacteriological quality. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 22(6), 543–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2012.677999
FDA. (2018). Antimicrobials sold or distributed for use in food-producing animals. US FDA for Veterinary Med., 2(December 2019), 227–249.
Gharibi, E., Ghalit, M., Taupin, J. D., Patris, N.& Kouotou, D. (2018). Assessment of the quality of Moroccan bottled water by application of quality indices. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology - AQUA, 67(6), 576–585. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2018.022
Hamad, A. A., Sharaf, M., Hamza, M. A., Selim, S., Hetta, H. F.& El-Kazzaz, W. (2022). Investigation of the Bacterial contamination and antibiotic susceptibility profile of bacteria isolated from bottled drinking water. Microbiology Spectrum, 10(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectru m.01516-21
Herath, A. T., Abayasekara, C. L., Chandrajith, R.& Adikaram, N. K. B. (2014). Pseudomonas aeruginosa in bottled drinking water in Sri Lanka: A potential health hazard. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 14(6), 1045–1050. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.057
Mills, K., Golden, J., Bilinski, A., Beckman, A. L., McDaniel, K., Harding, A. S., France, A., Tobar, H. N.& Vecitis, C. (2018). Bacterial contamination of reusable bottled drinking water in Ecuador. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 8(1), 81–89. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.064
Momtaz, H., Dehkordi, F. S., Rahimi, E.& Asgarifar, A. (2013). Detection of Escherichia coli, Salmonella species, and Vibrio cholerae in tap water and bottled drinking water in Isfahan, Iran. BMC Public Health, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-556
Palmares, A. J., Rongalirios, J. J., Santos, M., Siggaoat, M. J., Sucgang, P. L., Tipa, N. N., Torres, J. C. A., Vasquez, C. A., Viernes, A. M.& Gellecanao, F. (2024). The antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from selected estuaries in the City of Manila, Philippines. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 21(6), 15–22. https://doi.org/DOI 10.3233/AJW240068
Palmares, A. J., Tacsagon, K. J., Taopo, F. C., Taroma, X., Toledo, S., Torres, I. S., Ventura, J. R., Villanueva, A. M., Yamat, L. G.& Gellecanao, F. (2025). Antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from Marikina River in the Philippines: Environmental and public health implications. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(2), 614–621. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i2.6552
Pant, N. D., Poudyal, N.& Bhattacharya, S. K. (2016). Bacteriological quality of bottled drinking water versus municipal tap water in Dharan municipality, Nepal. Journal of Health, Population, and Nutrition, 35(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41043-016-0054-0
Puspita, T., Dharmayanti, I., Tjandrarini, D. H., Zahra, Z., Anwar, A., Irianto, J., Rachmat, B.& Yunianto, A. (2023). Packaged drinking water in Indonesia: The determinants of household in the selection and management process. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 13(7), 508–519. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.202 3.050
Schmidt, J.& Huang, B. (2022). The pH of bottled water commercially available in Australia and its implications for oral health. Journal of Water and Health, 20(5), 871–876. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.070
Schraft, H.& Watterworth, L. A. (2005). Enumeration of heterotrophs, fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli in water: Comparison of 3MTM PetrifilmTM plates with standard plating procedures. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 60(3), 335–342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mimet.2004.10.008
Svagzdiene, R., Lau, R.& Page, R. A. (2010). Microbiological quality of bottled water brands sold in retail outlets in New Zealand. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 10(5), 689–699. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2010.384
Tabar, S. A. M. M., Brewis, A.& Sohrabi, M. (2023). Status, social norms, or safety? understanding intended and reported bottled water use in Urban Mashhad, Iran. Journal of Water and Health, 21(1), 81–93. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.319
Thermo Fisher Scientific. (2018). Thermo Scientific Sensititre Plate Guide for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing.
Traoré, O., Ouédraogo, N., Dembélé, R., Kpoda, D. S., Setsoafia Saba, C. K., Ouindgueta Bonkoungou, I. J.& Barro, N. (2023). Physicochemical and bacteriological quality and safety of packaged drinking water in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Water Supply, 23(10), 4346–4356. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2023.249
Walter, C. T., Kooy, M.& Prabaharyaka, I. (2017). The role of bottled drinking water in achieving sdg 6.1: An analysis of affordability and equity from Jakarta, Indonesia. Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, 7(4), 642–650. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2017.046
WHO. (2022). Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda. World Health Organization.
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Assessment of microbial quality of bottled water from street vendors and sundry stores in Metro Manila, Philippines. (2025). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(4), 1591-1599. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i4.6861
