A review on aquatic ecotoxicity of profenofos with reference to environmental fate and impact on fish
Article Main
Abstract
Profenofos (PFF), a widely used organophosphorus insecticide in agriculture, has raised serious environmental concerns due to its persistence and toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. This review critically examines the environmental fate, transformation pathways, and ecotoxicological effects of PFF, with a particular focus on fish. PFF enters aquatic environments through runoff, leaching, and direct application, where it undergoes hydrolysis and microbial degradation, producing metabolites such as 4-bromo-2-chlorophenol and dichlorvos. These compounds exhibit bioaccumulative and toxic properties, affecting key physiological systems in aquatic organisms. As sensitive bioindicators, fish experience a range of toxic effects, including oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, impaired respiration, reproductive dysfunction, and behavioral anomalies, even at sublethal concentrations. The compound’s potential for biomagnification poses risks to higher trophic levels, including piscivorous birds and humans. This review identifies neurotoxicity, reproductive failure, and metabolic disruption in fish as the most prominent adverse outcomes of PFF exposure. However, limited data on chronic low-dose exposure, trophic transfer dynamics, and endocrine disruption mechanisms represent key knowledge gaps that require further investigation. Despite existing regulations, gaps persist in long-term monitoring, risk assessment, and identifying safe alternatives. This review emphasises the urgent need for integrated pest management (IPM), enhanced pesticide formulations, and stricter environmental policies to mitigate the ecological impacts of PFF and protect aquatic biodiversity.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Organophosphorus, Profenofos, Aquatic ecosystem, Invertebrates, Fish
References
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Boudh, S., & Singh, J. S. (2018). Pesticide contamination: Environmental problems and remediation strategies. In Emerging and Eco-Friendly Approaches for Waste Management (pp. 245–269). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-8669-4_12
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Eriksson, J. (2019). Toxicity bioassays with insecticide formulations used for control of Spodoptera frugiperda ( Lepidoptera : Noctuidae ) (Issue May). North-West University (South Africa.
Fucic, A., Duca, R., Galea, K. S., Maric, T., Garcia, K., Bloom, M., Andersen, H. R., & Vena, J. (2021). Reproductive health risks associated with occupational and environmental exposure to pesticides. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(12), 6576. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126576
Georgieva, E., Yancheva, V., Stoyanova, S., Velcheva, I., Iliev, I., Vasileva, T., Bivolarski, V., Petkova, E., László, B., Nyeste, K., & Antal, L. (2021). Which is more toxic? Evaluation of the short-term toxic effects of chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin on selected biomarkers in common carp (cyprinus carpio, linnaeus 1758). Toxics, 9(6), 125. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9060125
Ghafarifarsani, H., Fazle Rohani, M., Raeeszadeh, M., Ahani, S., Yousefi, M., Talebi, M., & Sazzad Hossain, M. (2024). Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation - a review. Annals of Animal Science, 24(4), 1007–1024. https://doi.org/10.2478/aoas-2024-0012
Ghazala, G., Mahboob, S., Al-Ghanim, K. A., Sultana, S., Alkahem Al-Balawi, H. F., Sultana, T., Al-Misned, F., & Ahmed, Z. (2014). Profenofos-induced effect on esterase activity and protein content in liver, kidney, brain, blood, and muscles in Indian major carp. Toxicological and Environmental Chemistry, 96(4), 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/02772248.2014.963277
Irfan, S., & Alatawi, A. M. M. (2019). Aquatic Ecosystem and Biodiversity: A Review. Open Journal of Ecology, 09(01), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.4236/oje.2019.91001
Islam, S. M., Khan, M. M., Moniruzzaman, M., Mostakim, G. M., & Rahman, M. K. (2019). Recuperation patterns in fish with reference to recovery of erythrocytes in Barbonymus gonionotus disordered by an organophosphate. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 16(11), 7535–7544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-019-02425-0
Ismail, I., & Khalil, N. (2020). Thermal and photolysis degradation of three profenofos formulations. Egyptian Journal of Agricultural Research, 98(2), 348–358. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejar.2020.122588
Ismail, M., Ali, R., Ali, T., Waheed, U., & Khan, Q. M. (2009). Evaluation of the acute toxicity of profenofos and its effects on the behavioral pattern of fingerling common carp (Cyprinus carpio L., 1758). Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 82(5), 569–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-009-9670-3
Janaki Devi, V., Nagarani, N., Yokesh Babu, M., Vijayalakshimi, N., & Kumaraguru, A. K. (2012). Genotoxic effects of profenofos on the marine fish, Therapon jarbua. Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods, 22(2), 111–117. https://doi.org/10.3109/15376516.2011.603393
Khan, M. D. P. (2020). Effects Of Profenofos, An Organophosphate Pesticide, On The Hematological Parameters Of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). In Researchgate.Net (Issue March). Master Thesis. Department of fisheries management, Bangladesh Agricultural University.
Kumar, V., Sharma, N., Sharma, P., Pasrija, R., Kaur, K., Umesh, M., & Thazeem, B. (2023). Toxicity analysis of endocrine disrupting pesticides on non-target organisms: A critical analysis on toxicity mechanisms. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 474, 116623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2023.116623
Kushwaha, M., Verma, S., & Chatterjee, S. (2016). Profenofos, an Acetylcholinesterase‐Inhibiting Organophosphorus Pesticide: A Short Review of Its Usage, Toxicity, and Biodegradation. Journal of Environmental Quality, 45(5), 1478–1489. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2016.03.0100
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A review on aquatic ecotoxicity of profenofos with reference to environmental fate and impact on fish. (2025). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(3), 961-972. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i3.6775
