Antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from Marikina River in the Philippines: Environmental and public health implications
Article Main
Abstract
The Marikina River in the Philippines is faced with problems caused by urbanization through the indiscriminate discharge of agricultural and municipal effluents, thus making the river potentially take part in the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AR). This study, therefore, focused on determining the concentration and AR profile of Escherichia coli isolated from surface waters across various river sites. The results showed that the concentration of E. coli from all six sampling sites, including one within a Philippine-protected landscape, has far exceeded the upper microbial limit for all water body classifications designated for beneficial use, including Class D water (400 CFU/100 mL). The estimated average E. coli and coliform concentrations from all sampling sites were 1.9 x 105 CFU/100 mL and 12.0 x 105 CFU/100 mL. Even in a protected area, average concentrations of E. coli (1.5 x 103 CFU/100 mL) and coliforms (5.6 x 103 CFU/100 mL) were far above the Class A water limit of 100 CFU/100 mL. Moreover, 18.8% and 22.9% of the isolates were classified as multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producers. Some isolates from the most upstream sites exhibited resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. These findings underscore the need for further surveillance, particularly in upstream areas, to better understand how human activities are contributing to the progression of AR in the river. Such studies are essential to keep authorities and policymakers informed and to guide more effective management and remediation efforts.
Article Details
Article Details
Keywords
Antimicrobial resistance, Coliform, Escherichia coli, Marikina river
References
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Iloba, K. I., Akawo, N. O., & Godwin, P. I. (2021). Assessment of Anwai river water quality using the weighted arithmetic water quality index (WQI) in delta state, Nigeria. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13(3), 913–922. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i3.2758
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Larsson, D. G. J., & Flach, C. F. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in the environment. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 20(5), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-021-00649-x
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Santillan, J., Ramos, R., David, G., & Recamadas, S. (2013). Development , calibration and validation of a flood model for Marikina River Basin , Philippines and its applications for flood forecasting , reconstruction , and hazard mapping. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3059.2161
Suzuki, Y., Nazareno, J., Nakano, R., Mondoy, M., Nakano, A., & Bugayong, P. (2020). Environmental Presence and Genetic Characteristics of Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae from Hospital Sewage and River Water in the Philippines. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 86(2), 1–10.
Thermo Fisher Scientific. (2018). Thermo Scientific Sensititre Plate Guide for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing.
Titilawo, Y., Sibanda, T., Obi, L., & Okoh, A. (2015). Multiple antibiotic resistance indexing of Escherichia coli to identify high-risk sources of faecal contamination of water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
22(14), 10969–10980. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3887-3
Vital, P. G., Caballes, M. B. D., & Rivera, W. L. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in escherichia coli and salmonella spp. Isolates from fresh produce and the impact to food safety. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 52(9), 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2017.1331676
Vital, P. G., Zara, E. S., Paraoan, C. E. M., Dimasupil, M. A. Z., Abello, J. J. M., Santos, I. T. G., & Rivera, W. L. (2018). Antibiotic resistance and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production of escherichia coli isolated from irrigationwaters in selected urban farms in Metro Manila, Philippines. Water, 10(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050548
Wang, Z., Han, M., Li, E., Liu, X., Wei, H., Yang, C., Lu, S., & Ning, K. (2020). Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in an agriculturally disturbed lake in China: Their links with microbial communities, antibiotics, and water quality. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 393, 122426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122426
Yoneda, I., Rozanah, U. N., Nishiyama, M., Mith, H., & Watanabe, T. (2022). Detection and genetic analysis of Escherichia coli from Tonle Sap Lake and its tributaries in Cambodia: Spatial distribution, seasonal variation, pathogenicity, and antimicrobial resistance. Environmental Pollution, 315(September), 120406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120406
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ARSP. (2024). Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Program Annual Report - 2023. In Department of Health - Research Institute for Tropical Medicine.
Azuma, T., Uchiyama, T., Zhang, D., Usui, M., & Hayashi, T. (2022). Distribution and characteristics of carbapenem-resistant and extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) producing Escherichia coli in hospital effluents, sewage treatment plants, and river water in an urban area of Japan. Science of the Total Environment, 839, 156232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156232
Azzam, M. I., Ezzat, S. M., Othman, B. A., & El-Dougdoug, K. A. (2017). Antibiotics resistance phenomenon and virulence ability in bacteria from water environment. Water Science, 31(2), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2017.10.001
Berkman International Inc. (2015). Formulation of an Integrated River Basin Management and Development Master Plan for Marikina river Basin. In River Basin Control Office Department of Environment and Natural Resources - Department of Environment and Natural Resources River Basin Control Office (Vol. 2).
Bonnin, R. A., Bernabeu, S., Emeraud, C., Creton, E., Vanparis, O., Naas, T., Jousset, A. B., & Dortet, L. (2022). Susceptibility of OXA-48-producing Enterobacterales to imipenem/relebactam, meropenem/vaborbactam and ceftazidime/avibactam. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 60(4), 106660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2022.106660
Bringula, R. P., Canlas, R. L., Afable, J. M., Gajo, R., Santos, M. C., & Ancheta, A. A. (2015). “How do people view the estuary and the technology management practices to rehabilitate it?”: The case of Estero de Paco in Manila. Proceedings of 2014 2nd International Conference on Technology, Informatics, Management, Engineering and Environment, TIME-E 2014, 128–134. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIME-E.2014.7011605
Chen, J., Hsu, B., Ko, W., & Wang, J. (2023). Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety Comparison of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli and extra-intestinal pathogenic E . coli from main river basins under different levels of the sewer system development. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 263(138), 115372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115372
Chen, Z., Yu, D., He, S., Ye, H., Zhang, L., Wen, Y., Zhang, W., Shu, L., & Chen, S. (2017). Prevalence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli in drinking water sources in Hangzhou City. Frontiers in Microbiology, 8, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2017.01133
Cho, K. H., Cha, S. M., Kang, J. H., Lee, S. W., Park, Y., Kim, J. W., & Kim, J. H. (2010). Meteorological effects on the levels of fecal indicator bacteria in an urban stream: A modeling approach. Water Research, 44(7), 2189–2202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.051
Clemente, E. D. (2020). Evaluating the Water Quality Contribution of Estero de Paco to Pasig River and Manila Bay, Philippines. E3S Web of Conferences, 148, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202014807010
CLSI. (2021). M100 Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptobility Testing (31st ed.). Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute.
Collignon, P. J., & McEwen, S. A. (2019). One health-its importance in helping to better control antimicrobial resistance. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed4010022
Dela Peña, L. B. R. O., Nacario, M. A. G., Bolo, N. R., & Rivera, W. L. (2022). Multiple Antibiotic Resistance in Escherichia coli Isolates from Fecal and Water Sources in Laguna Lake, Philippines. Water, 14(9). https://doi.org/10.3390/w14091517
DENR. (2015). DENR MC 2015-006 Guidelines for Recreational Waters Monitoring Program. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines.
DENR. (2016). DENR AO 2016-08. Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of 2016. Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Republic of the Philippines.
EPA. (2012). Recreational Water Quality Criteria. In U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Health and Ecological Criteria Division, Office of Science and Technology, United States (U.S.).
Essert, S. M., Zacharias, N., Precht, T., Pankratz, D., Funken, K., Mutters, N. T., Kistemann, T., & Schreiber, C. (2023). Persistence of MRSA and ESBL-producing E . coli and K . oxytoca in river water. Hygiene and Environmental Health Advances, 7(December 2022), 100072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heha.2023.100072
Fu, C., Xu, B., Chen, H., Zhao, X., Li, G., Zheng, Y., Qiu, W., Zheng, C., Duan, L., & Wang, W. (2022). Occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in groundwater, surface water, and sediment in Xiong’an New Area, China, and their relationship with antibiotic resistance genes. Science of the Total Environment, 807, 151011. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151011
Ghosh, P., & Panigrahi, A. K. (2023). Evaluation of water quality of Mundeswari River in eastern India: a water quality index (WQI) based approach. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 15(1), 379–390. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v15i1.4340
Guidelines on recreational water quality. Volume 1: coastal and fresh waters. Geneva: (2021). In Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240031302
Ham, Y. S., Kobori, H., Kang, J. H., Matsuzaki, T., Iino, M., & Nomura, H. (2012). Distribution of antibiotic resistance in urban watershed in Japan. Environmental Pollution, 162, 98–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2011.11.002
Hasan, S. A. R., & Shakir, B. K. (2025). Isolation and identification of pathogenic bacteria from drinking tap water and Tigris River water sources in Baghdad. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(1), 96–104. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i1.5963
Iloba, K. I., Akawo, N. O., & Godwin, P. I. (2021). Assessment of Anwai river water quality using the weighted arithmetic water quality index (WQI) in delta state, Nigeria. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13(3), 913–922. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i3.2758
Jiang, X., Liu, L., Chen, J., Fan, X., Xie, S., Huang, J., & Yu, G. (2021). Antibiotic resistance genes and mobile genetic elements in a rural river in Southeast China: Occurrence, seasonal variation and association with the antibiotics. Science of the Total Environment, 778, 146131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146131
Kundan, P., & Slathia, D. (2018). Investigation of water quality changes in drinking water supplied from Sitlee water treatment plant on River Tawi to Old Jammu City, Jammu, J&K, India. Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 10(2), 601–607. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v10i2.1742
Larsson, D. G. J., & Flach, C. F. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in the environment. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 20(5), 257–269. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-021-00649-x
Liang, X., Guan, F., Chen, B., Luo, P., Guo, C., Wu, G., Ye, Y., Zhou, Q., & Fang, H. (2020). Spatial and seasonal variations of antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotics in the surface waters of Poyang Lake in China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 196, 110543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.110543
Palmares, A. J., & De los Reyes, J. (2016). Diagnostic Microbiology Workbook (1st ed.). C&E Publishing, Inc.
Palmares, A. J., Rongalirios, J. J., Santos, M., Siggaoat, M. J., Sucgang, P. L., Tipa, N. N., Torres, J. C. A., Vasquez, C. A., Viernes, A. M., & Gellecanao, F. (2024). The Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Escherichia coli Isolated from Estuaries in the City of Manila, Philippines. Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, 21(6), 15–22. https://doi.org/DOI 10.3233/AJW240068
Quintela-Baluja, M., Abouelnaga, M., Romalde, J., Su, J. Q., Yu, Y., Gomez-Lopez, M., Smets, B., Zhu, Y. G., & Graham, D. W. (2019). Spatial ecology of a wastewater network defines the antibiotic resistance genes in downstream receiving waters. Water Research, 162, 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2019.06.075
Rousham, E. K., Unicomb, L., & Islam, M. A. (2018). Human, animal and environmental contributors to antibiotic resistance in low-resource settings: Integrating behavioural, epidemiological and one health approaches. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 285(1876). https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.0332
Santillan, J., Ramos, R., David, G., & Recamadas, S. (2013). Development , calibration and validation of a flood model for Marikina River Basin , Philippines and its applications for flood forecasting , reconstruction , and hazard mapping. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3059.2161
Suzuki, Y., Nazareno, J., Nakano, R., Mondoy, M., Nakano, A., & Bugayong, P. (2020). Environmental Presence and Genetic Characteristics of Carbapenemase-Producing Enterobacteriaceae from Hospital Sewage and River Water in the Philippines. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 86(2), 1–10.
Thermo Fisher Scientific. (2018). Thermo Scientific Sensititre Plate Guide for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing.
Titilawo, Y., Sibanda, T., Obi, L., & Okoh, A. (2015). Multiple antibiotic resistance indexing of Escherichia coli to identify high-risk sources of faecal contamination of water. Environmental Science and Pollution Research,
22(14), 10969–10980. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3887-3
Vital, P. G., Caballes, M. B. D., & Rivera, W. L. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in escherichia coli and salmonella spp. Isolates from fresh produce and the impact to food safety. Journal of Environmental Science and Health - Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes, 52(9), 683–689. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601234.2017.1331676
Vital, P. G., Zara, E. S., Paraoan, C. E. M., Dimasupil, M. A. Z., Abello, J. J. M., Santos, I. T. G., & Rivera, W. L. (2018). Antibiotic resistance and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase production of escherichia coli isolated from irrigationwaters in selected urban farms in Metro Manila, Philippines. Water, 10(5), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10050548
Wang, Z., Han, M., Li, E., Liu, X., Wei, H., Yang, C., Lu, S., & Ning, K. (2020). Distribution of antibiotic resistance genes in an agriculturally disturbed lake in China: Their links with microbial communities, antibiotics, and water quality. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 393, 122426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122426
Yoneda, I., Rozanah, U. N., Nishiyama, M., Mith, H., & Watanabe, T. (2022). Detection and genetic analysis of Escherichia coli from Tonle Sap Lake and its tributaries in Cambodia: Spatial distribution, seasonal variation, pathogenicity, and antimicrobial resistance. Environmental Pollution, 315(September), 120406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120406
Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Liu, P., Sun, Y., Dong, X., & Hu, X. (2022). Unveiling the occurrence, hosts and mobility potential of antibiotic resistance genes in the deep ocean. Science of the Total Environment, 816, 151539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151539
Zheng, D., Yin, G., Liu, M., Chen, C., Jiang, Y., Hou, L., & Zheng, Y. (2021). A systematic review of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in estuarine and coastal environments. Science of the Total Environment, 777, 146009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146009
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Antibiotic resistance profile of Escherichia coli from Marikina River in the Philippines: Environmental and public health implications. (2025). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 17(2), 614-621. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v17i2.6552
