Changes in blood Cr level and its oxidative status among leather tannery workers of District Kanpur in North India
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Abstract
Chromium (Cr) sulfate is used in the tannery industry as a basic tanning agent. Workers are directly exposed to the Cr due to unawareness and no safety protocols. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the oxidative stress of Cr in tannery workers of District Kanpur in North India. Two groups of the population were for the study, Group I included 50 directly exposed people employed in tannery industries, whereas Group II included 50 healthy people with no previous exposure to Cr. The concentration of total Cr in blood samples was measured by Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Oxidative status was measured by antioxidant enzyme assays such as Catalase (CAT), Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) and Glutathione Reductase (GR). Statistical analysis observed a significant (p<0.001) increase of Cr concentration in Cr-exposed Group compared to controls which were not exposed to Cr. The level of CAT (9.73 ± 1.68 u/mg) was significantly (p<0.001) higher in Cr-exposed group as compared to control (6.00 ± 0.86 u/mg) while GPx (40.02 ± 5.43 u/mg) and GR (5.29 ± 1.59 u/gHg) concentration is significantly (p?0.001) lower in Cr-exposed group compared to control (59.71 ± 5.09 u/mg and 10.77 ± 2.32 u/g Hg, respectively. In Pearson correlation analysis, blood Cr level showed a significant correlation (p<0.05) with oxidative status. In Pearson correlation analysis, blood Cr level showed a significant correlation (p<0.05) with the oxidative status of the exposed population. The outcome of this study may help the early detection of hazardous impact of Cr on tannery workers, which will be crucial for reducing health risk and exposure.
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Keywords
Tannery workers, Oxidative stress, Chromium, Catalase
References
Aebi, H. (1984). Catalase in vitro. Methods in enzymology, 105, 121–126. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(84)05016-3.
Akhtar, M. J., Ahamed, M., Kumar, S., Khan, M. M., Ahmad, J. & Alrokayan, S. A. (2012). Zinc oxide nanoparticles selectively induce apoptosis in human cancer cells through reactive oxygen species. International journal of nanomedicine, 7, 845–857. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S29129.
Ambreen, K., Khan, F. H., Bhadauria, S., & Kumar, S. (2014). Genotoxicity and oxidative stress in chromium-exposed tannery workers in North India. Toxicology and Industrial health, 30(5), 405–414. doi: 10.1177/0748 233712457447.
Annangi, B., Bonassi, S., Marcos, R. & Hernández, A. (2016). Biomonitoring of humans exposed to arsenic, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and complex mixtures of metals by using the micronucleus test in lymphocytes. Mutation research, 770(Pt A), 140–161. doi: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.03.003.
ATSDR (2012). Toxicological profile of chromium. US Department of Health and Human Services, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry), Public Health Services Atlanta,USA
Bagchi, D., P. J. Vuchetich, M. Bagchi, E. A. Hassoun, M. X. Tran, L. Tang & S. J. Stohs. (1997). Induction of oxidative stress by chronic administration of sodium dichromate [chromium VI] and cadmium chloride [cadmium II] to rats. Free Radic Biol Med, 22(3), 471-478. doi: 10.1016/s0891-5849(96)00352-8.
Bradford, M.M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical biochemistry, 72, 248–254. doi: 10.1006/abio.1976.9999.
Chaudhary, S., Pinkston, J., Rabile, M. M., & Van Horn, J. D. (2005). Unusual reactivity in a commercial chromium supplement compared to baseline DNA cleavage with synthetic chromium complexes. Journal of inorganic biochemistry, 99(3): 787–794. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.20 04.1 2.009.
Chen, Q. Y., Murphy, A., Sun, H., & Costa, M. (2019). Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 377, 114636. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114636.
Cheung, C. C., Zheng, G. J., Li, A. M., Richardson, B. J., & Lam, P. K. (2001). Relationships between tissue concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and antioxidative responses of marine mussels, Perna viridis. Aquatic toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 52(3-4), 189–203. doi: 10.1016/s0166-445x(00)00145-4.
CPCB (1997) Report on groundwater quality in Kanpur, status, sources and control measures: GWQS/8/1996–97. Central Pollution Control Board, India 1: 4–5.
Danielsson, B.R.G., Hassoun, E. & Dencker. (1982). Embryotoxicity of chromium: Distribution in pregnant mice and effects on embryonic cells in vitro. Archives of Toxicology, 51(3): 233-245. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1984.
Dayan, A. D., & Paine, A. J. (2001). Mechanisms of chromium toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenicity: review of the literature from 1985 to 2000. Human & experimental toxicology, 20(9), 439–451. doi: 10.1191/09603270168 2693062.
Dixit, S., Yadav, A., Dwivedi, P. D., & Das, M. (2015). Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 87, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.017
Eastmond, D.A., MacGregor, J.T. & Slesinski, R.S. (2008). Trivalent chromium: assessing the genotoxic risk of an essential trace element and widely used human and animal nutritional supplement. Critical reviews in toxicology, 38, 173-190. doi: 10.1080/10408440701845401.
Eskin, Michael. (2016). Chromium: Is It Essential and Is It Safe?. Vitamins & Minerals. 05. doi: 10.4172/2376-1318.1000e144 Zhitkovich, A. 2005. Importance of chromium-DNA adducts in mutagenicity and toxicity of chromium (VI). Chem Res Toxicol, 18 (1), 3-11. doi: 10.1021/tx049774+.
Flohé, L., & Günzler, W. A. (1984). Assays of glutathione peroxidase. Oxygen Radicals in Biological Systems, 105(1): 114–120. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(84)05015-1.
GCPC. (2015). Cleaner production guidelines in leather industries report, supported by Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Government of India.
Goel, S. (2014). An In-depth Study Of India’s Leather Industry With Special Reference To Export Prospects Of Leather Products. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences, 3.1, 56-67.
Goldberg, D.M. & Spooner, R.J. (1983). Assay of Glutathione Reductase. In: Bergmeyen, H.V., Ed., Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 3rd Edition, Vol. 3, Verlog Chemie, Deerfiled Beach, 258-265.
Gosh R. (2019). Kumbh’s over, now God save the Ganga. DowntoEarth, India. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/water/kumbh-s-over-now-god-save-the-ganga-63750.
Gupta, S. S. (2014). Ganga’s burden of pollutants from Kanpur to Varanasi. DowntoEarth, India. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/gangas-burden-of-pollutants-from-kanpur-to-varanasi-45382.
Junaid, M., Hashmi, M. Z., Malik, R. N., & Pei, D. S. (2016). Toxicity and oxidative stress induced by chromium in workers exposed from different occupational settings around the globe: A review. Environmental science and pollution research international, 23(20), 20151–20167. doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-7463-x.
Katiyar, S., Awasthi, S. K., & Sahu, R. K. (2008). Suppression of IL-6 level in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with PHA/LPS after occupational exposure to chromium. The Science of the total environment, 390(2-3), 355–361. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.200 7.10.031.
Khan, F. H., Ambreen, K., Fatima, G., & Kumar, S. (2012). Assessment of health risks with reference to oxidative stress and DNA damage in chromium exposed population. The Science of the total environment, 430, 68–74. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.04.063.
Khan, W., Hossin, M. E., & Akbor, M. J. (2015). Leather Industry in Bangladesh: A Systematic Literature Review. Asian Business Review, 5(3), 111-118. doi: 10.1803 4/abr.v5i3.591
Kornhauser, C., Wróbel, K., Wróbel, K., Malacara, J. M., Nava, L. E., Gómez, L., & González, R. (2002). Possible adverse effect of chromium in occupational exposure of tannery workers. Industrial health, 40(2), 207–213.
Krishnamoorthy, G., Sadulla, S., Sehgal, P.K., Mandal, A.B. 2012. Green chemistry approaches to leather tanning process for making chrome-free leather by unnatural amino acids. J. Hazard. Mater. 173e182.
Li, Xinxin & Wang, Ya-nan & Li, Jing & Shi, Bi. (2016). Effect of Sodium Chloride on Structure of Collagen Fiber Network in Pickling and Tanning. Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association. 111(6), 230-237.
National Toxicology Program (NTP) (2008). Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Sodium Dichromate Dihydrate (CAS No. 7789-12-0) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Drinking Water Studies). National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series, 556, 1-192.
Ozawa, T., & Hanaki, A. (1990). Spin-trapping studies on the reactions of Cr(III) with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of biological reductants: is Cr(III) non-toxic?.
Biochemistry international, 22(2), 343–352.
Paithankar, J.G., Saini, S., Dwivedi, S., Sharma, A., Chowdhuri, D.K. (2020). Heavy metal associated health hazards: An interplay of oxidative stress and signal transduction, Chemosphere, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.che mosphe re.2020.128350.
Pizzino, G., Irrera, N., Cucinotta, M., Pallio, G., Mannino, F., Arcoraci, V., Squadrito, F., Altavilla, D., & Bitto, A. (2017). Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2017, 8416763. doi:10.1155/2017/8416763
Qureshi, Muhammad & Rehman, Hameed & Zareen, Shehzad & Ullah, Wajid & Shah, Muhammad & Bibi, Aina & Habib, Sairish & Mujaddad-ur-Rehman, & Rehman, Ziafat. (2016). Occupational risk assessment of oxidative stress and DNA damage in tannery workers exposed to Chromium in Pakistan. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 4, 426-432.
Roy, C. (2012). A Study on Environmental Compliance of Indian Leather Industry & its Far-reaching Impact on Leather Exports. Foreign Trade Review, 47(2), 3 36. doi:10.1177/0015732515120201.
Saxena, G., Chandra, R., & Bharagava, R. N. (2016). Environmental Pollution, Toxicity Profile and Treatment Approaches for Tannery Wastewater and Its Chemical Pollutants. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 31–69. doi-https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2015_5009.
Setyaningsih, Y., Husodo, A.H., Astuti, I. (2015). Detection of urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels as a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage among home industry workers exposed to chromium. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 23, 290–296 doi: 10.1016/j.proenv.201 5.01.043
Shi, X., A. Chiu, C. T. Chen, B. Halliwell, V. Castranova, and V. Vallyathan. (1999). Reduction of chromium(VI) and its relationship to carcinogenesis. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 2(1), 87-104.
Singh, S. & Rajamani, S. (2011). Environmental compliance and sustainability of small and medium leather tanneries, Leather News India.
Srinivasa Gowd, S., Ramakrishna Reddy, M., & Govil, P. K. (2010). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soils at Jajmau (Kanpur) and Unnao industrial areas of the Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of hazardous materials, 174(1-3), 113–121. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.200 9.09.024.
Tare, V, Gupta, S & Bose, P. (2003). Case Studies on Biological Treatment of Tannery Effluents in India. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 53(8), 976-982, doi: 10.1080/10473289.2003.10466250
Vauquelin, L.N. (1798). Memoir on a New Metallic Acid which exists in the Red Lead of Siberia. Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts. 3, 145–146.
Vincent, J. B. (2013) The Bioinorganic Chemistry of Chromium. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK.195–213. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5387(00)00624-0.
Wang, L., Wise, J. T., Zhang, Z., & Shi, X. (2016). Progress and prospects of reactive oxygen species in metal carcinogenesis. Current pharmacology reports, 2(4), 178–186. doi: 10.1007/s40495-016-0061-2.
Wang, T. C., Song, Y. S., Wang, H., Zhang, J., Yu, S. F., Gu, Y. E., Chen, T., Wang, Y., Shen, H. Q., & Jia, G. (2012). Oxidative DNA damage and global DNA hypomethylation are related to folate deficiency in chromate manufacturing workers. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 213-214, 440–446. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.20 12.0 2.024.
Warren, G., P. Schultz, D. Bancroft, K. Bennett, E.H. Abbott and S. Rogers (1981). Mutagenicity of a series of hexacoordinate chromium (III) compounds. Mutation Res, 90(2), 111-118. doi: 10.1016/0165-1218(81)90073-2.
Wilbur, S., Abadin, H., Fay, M., Yu, D., Tencza, B., Ingerman, L., Klotzbach, J., James, S. (2012). Toxicological Profile for Chromium ATSDR.
Wise, J., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., Shi, X., 2019. Oxidative Stress of Cr(III) and Carcinogenesis: The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium (III). pp. 323–340. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114636.
Xu, J., Zhao, M., Pei, L., Zhang, R., Liu, X., Wei, L., Yang, M., & Xu, Q. (2018). Oxidative stress and DNA damage in a long-term hexavalent chromium-exposed population in North China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 8(6), e021470.
Zhang, Q., Ye, J., Chen, J., Xu, H., Wang, C., & Zhao, M. (2014). Risk assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals in soils of an abandoned e-waste site in China. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 185, 258–265. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.11.003.
Zhu, Y., & Costa, M. (2020). Metals and molecular carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis, 41(9): 1161–1172. doi: 10.109 3/carcin/bgaa076.
Akhtar, M. J., Ahamed, M., Kumar, S., Khan, M. M., Ahmad, J. & Alrokayan, S. A. (2012). Zinc oxide nanoparticles selectively induce apoptosis in human cancer cells through reactive oxygen species. International journal of nanomedicine, 7, 845–857. doi: 10.2147/IJN.S29129.
Ambreen, K., Khan, F. H., Bhadauria, S., & Kumar, S. (2014). Genotoxicity and oxidative stress in chromium-exposed tannery workers in North India. Toxicology and Industrial health, 30(5), 405–414. doi: 10.1177/0748 233712457447.
Annangi, B., Bonassi, S., Marcos, R. & Hernández, A. (2016). Biomonitoring of humans exposed to arsenic, chromium, nickel, vanadium, and complex mixtures of metals by using the micronucleus test in lymphocytes. Mutation research, 770(Pt A), 140–161. doi: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2016.03.003.
ATSDR (2012). Toxicological profile of chromium. US Department of Health and Human Services, ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Registry), Public Health Services Atlanta,USA
Bagchi, D., P. J. Vuchetich, M. Bagchi, E. A. Hassoun, M. X. Tran, L. Tang & S. J. Stohs. (1997). Induction of oxidative stress by chronic administration of sodium dichromate [chromium VI] and cadmium chloride [cadmium II] to rats. Free Radic Biol Med, 22(3), 471-478. doi: 10.1016/s0891-5849(96)00352-8.
Bradford, M.M. (1976). A rapid and sensitive method for the quantitation of microgram quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding. Analytical biochemistry, 72, 248–254. doi: 10.1006/abio.1976.9999.
Chaudhary, S., Pinkston, J., Rabile, M. M., & Van Horn, J. D. (2005). Unusual reactivity in a commercial chromium supplement compared to baseline DNA cleavage with synthetic chromium complexes. Journal of inorganic biochemistry, 99(3): 787–794. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.20 04.1 2.009.
Chen, Q. Y., Murphy, A., Sun, H., & Costa, M. (2019). Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of Cr(VI)-induced carcinogenesis. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 377, 114636. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114636.
Cheung, C. C., Zheng, G. J., Li, A. M., Richardson, B. J., & Lam, P. K. (2001). Relationships between tissue concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and antioxidative responses of marine mussels, Perna viridis. Aquatic toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 52(3-4), 189–203. doi: 10.1016/s0166-445x(00)00145-4.
CPCB (1997) Report on groundwater quality in Kanpur, status, sources and control measures: GWQS/8/1996–97. Central Pollution Control Board, India 1: 4–5.
Danielsson, B.R.G., Hassoun, E. & Dencker. (1982). Embryotoxicity of chromium: Distribution in pregnant mice and effects on embryonic cells in vitro. Archives of Toxicology, 51(3): 233-245. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1984.
Dayan, A. D., & Paine, A. J. (2001). Mechanisms of chromium toxicity, carcinogenicity and allergenicity: review of the literature from 1985 to 2000. Human & experimental toxicology, 20(9), 439–451. doi: 10.1191/09603270168 2693062.
Dixit, S., Yadav, A., Dwivedi, P. D., & Das, M. (2015). Toxic hazards of leather industry and technologies to combat threat: a review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 87, 39–49. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.017
Eastmond, D.A., MacGregor, J.T. & Slesinski, R.S. (2008). Trivalent chromium: assessing the genotoxic risk of an essential trace element and widely used human and animal nutritional supplement. Critical reviews in toxicology, 38, 173-190. doi: 10.1080/10408440701845401.
Eskin, Michael. (2016). Chromium: Is It Essential and Is It Safe?. Vitamins & Minerals. 05. doi: 10.4172/2376-1318.1000e144 Zhitkovich, A. 2005. Importance of chromium-DNA adducts in mutagenicity and toxicity of chromium (VI). Chem Res Toxicol, 18 (1), 3-11. doi: 10.1021/tx049774+.
Flohé, L., & Günzler, W. A. (1984). Assays of glutathione peroxidase. Oxygen Radicals in Biological Systems, 105(1): 114–120. doi: 10.1016/s0076-6879(84)05015-1.
GCPC. (2015). Cleaner production guidelines in leather industries report, supported by Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change, Government of India.
Goel, S. (2014). An In-depth Study Of India’s Leather Industry With Special Reference To Export Prospects Of Leather Products. International Journal of Advanced Research in Management and Social Sciences, 3.1, 56-67.
Goldberg, D.M. & Spooner, R.J. (1983). Assay of Glutathione Reductase. In: Bergmeyen, H.V., Ed., Methods of Enzymatic Analysis, 3rd Edition, Vol. 3, Verlog Chemie, Deerfiled Beach, 258-265.
Gosh R. (2019). Kumbh’s over, now God save the Ganga. DowntoEarth, India. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/water/kumbh-s-over-now-god-save-the-ganga-63750.
Gupta, S. S. (2014). Ganga’s burden of pollutants from Kanpur to Varanasi. DowntoEarth, India. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/gangas-burden-of-pollutants-from-kanpur-to-varanasi-45382.
Junaid, M., Hashmi, M. Z., Malik, R. N., & Pei, D. S. (2016). Toxicity and oxidative stress induced by chromium in workers exposed from different occupational settings around the globe: A review. Environmental science and pollution research international, 23(20), 20151–20167. doi: 10.1007/s11356-016-7463-x.
Katiyar, S., Awasthi, S. K., & Sahu, R. K. (2008). Suppression of IL-6 level in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with PHA/LPS after occupational exposure to chromium. The Science of the total environment, 390(2-3), 355–361. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.200 7.10.031.
Khan, F. H., Ambreen, K., Fatima, G., & Kumar, S. (2012). Assessment of health risks with reference to oxidative stress and DNA damage in chromium exposed population. The Science of the total environment, 430, 68–74. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.04.063.
Khan, W., Hossin, M. E., & Akbor, M. J. (2015). Leather Industry in Bangladesh: A Systematic Literature Review. Asian Business Review, 5(3), 111-118. doi: 10.1803 4/abr.v5i3.591
Kornhauser, C., Wróbel, K., Wróbel, K., Malacara, J. M., Nava, L. E., Gómez, L., & González, R. (2002). Possible adverse effect of chromium in occupational exposure of tannery workers. Industrial health, 40(2), 207–213.
Krishnamoorthy, G., Sadulla, S., Sehgal, P.K., Mandal, A.B. 2012. Green chemistry approaches to leather tanning process for making chrome-free leather by unnatural amino acids. J. Hazard. Mater. 173e182.
Li, Xinxin & Wang, Ya-nan & Li, Jing & Shi, Bi. (2016). Effect of Sodium Chloride on Structure of Collagen Fiber Network in Pickling and Tanning. Journal of the American Leather Chemists Association. 111(6), 230-237.
National Toxicology Program (NTP) (2008). Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Sodium Dichromate Dihydrate (CAS No. 7789-12-0) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Drinking Water Studies). National Toxicology Program Technical Report Series, 556, 1-192.
Ozawa, T., & Hanaki, A. (1990). Spin-trapping studies on the reactions of Cr(III) with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of biological reductants: is Cr(III) non-toxic?.
Biochemistry international, 22(2), 343–352.
Paithankar, J.G., Saini, S., Dwivedi, S., Sharma, A., Chowdhuri, D.K. (2020). Heavy metal associated health hazards: An interplay of oxidative stress and signal transduction, Chemosphere, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.che mosphe re.2020.128350.
Pizzino, G., Irrera, N., Cucinotta, M., Pallio, G., Mannino, F., Arcoraci, V., Squadrito, F., Altavilla, D., & Bitto, A. (2017). Oxidative Stress: Harms and Benefits for Human Health. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, 2017, 8416763. doi:10.1155/2017/8416763
Qureshi, Muhammad & Rehman, Hameed & Zareen, Shehzad & Ullah, Wajid & Shah, Muhammad & Bibi, Aina & Habib, Sairish & Mujaddad-ur-Rehman, & Rehman, Ziafat. (2016). Occupational risk assessment of oxidative stress and DNA damage in tannery workers exposed to Chromium in Pakistan. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 4, 426-432.
Roy, C. (2012). A Study on Environmental Compliance of Indian Leather Industry & its Far-reaching Impact on Leather Exports. Foreign Trade Review, 47(2), 3 36. doi:10.1177/0015732515120201.
Saxena, G., Chandra, R., & Bharagava, R. N. (2016). Environmental Pollution, Toxicity Profile and Treatment Approaches for Tannery Wastewater and Its Chemical Pollutants. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 31–69. doi-https://doi.org/10.1007/398_2015_5009.
Setyaningsih, Y., Husodo, A.H., Astuti, I. (2015). Detection of urinary 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) levels as a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage among home industry workers exposed to chromium. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 23, 290–296 doi: 10.1016/j.proenv.201 5.01.043
Shi, X., A. Chiu, C. T. Chen, B. Halliwell, V. Castranova, and V. Vallyathan. (1999). Reduction of chromium(VI) and its relationship to carcinogenesis. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev, 2(1), 87-104.
Singh, S. & Rajamani, S. (2011). Environmental compliance and sustainability of small and medium leather tanneries, Leather News India.
Srinivasa Gowd, S., Ramakrishna Reddy, M., & Govil, P. K. (2010). Assessment of heavy metal contamination in soils at Jajmau (Kanpur) and Unnao industrial areas of the Ganga Plain, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of hazardous materials, 174(1-3), 113–121. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.200 9.09.024.
Tare, V, Gupta, S & Bose, P. (2003). Case Studies on Biological Treatment of Tannery Effluents in India. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 53(8), 976-982, doi: 10.1080/10473289.2003.10466250
Vauquelin, L.N. (1798). Memoir on a New Metallic Acid which exists in the Red Lead of Siberia. Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and the Arts. 3, 145–146.
Vincent, J. B. (2013) The Bioinorganic Chemistry of Chromium. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.: Chichester, UK.195–213. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5387(00)00624-0.
Wang, L., Wise, J. T., Zhang, Z., & Shi, X. (2016). Progress and prospects of reactive oxygen species in metal carcinogenesis. Current pharmacology reports, 2(4), 178–186. doi: 10.1007/s40495-016-0061-2.
Wang, T. C., Song, Y. S., Wang, H., Zhang, J., Yu, S. F., Gu, Y. E., Chen, T., Wang, Y., Shen, H. Q., & Jia, G. (2012). Oxidative DNA damage and global DNA hypomethylation are related to folate deficiency in chromate manufacturing workers. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 213-214, 440–446. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.20 12.0 2.024.
Warren, G., P. Schultz, D. Bancroft, K. Bennett, E.H. Abbott and S. Rogers (1981). Mutagenicity of a series of hexacoordinate chromium (III) compounds. Mutation Res, 90(2), 111-118. doi: 10.1016/0165-1218(81)90073-2.
Wilbur, S., Abadin, H., Fay, M., Yu, D., Tencza, B., Ingerman, L., Klotzbach, J., James, S. (2012). Toxicological Profile for Chromium ATSDR.
Wise, J., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., Shi, X., 2019. Oxidative Stress of Cr(III) and Carcinogenesis: The Nutritional Biochemistry of Chromium (III). pp. 323–340. doi: 10.1016/j.taap.2019.114636.
Xu, J., Zhao, M., Pei, L., Zhang, R., Liu, X., Wei, L., Yang, M., & Xu, Q. (2018). Oxidative stress and DNA damage in a long-term hexavalent chromium-exposed population in North China: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open, 8(6), e021470.
Zhang, Q., Ye, J., Chen, J., Xu, H., Wang, C., & Zhao, M. (2014). Risk assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls and heavy metals in soils of an abandoned e-waste site in China. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 185, 258–265. doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2013.11.003.
Zhu, Y., & Costa, M. (2020). Metals and molecular carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis, 41(9): 1161–1172. doi: 10.109 3/carcin/bgaa076.
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How to Cite
Changes in blood Cr level and its oxidative status among leather tannery workers of District Kanpur in North India. (2021). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 13(1), 79-87. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v13i1.2475
