Influence of agricultural wastes on larval growth phases of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): An integrated approach
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Abstract
Insects are an effective tool for converting nutrients in agricultural by-products into protein-rich biomass and compost. Black soldier fly (BSF) (Hermetia illucens) larvae are currently one of the insect species widely used as a protein source in aquafeed globally. Although much effort has been spent on the use of BSF in aquafeed, there is not much information on the biology of the insect, especially with the morphology of the BSF. This study aimed to evaluate the influence of various organic wastes, such as fruit wastes (FW) and vegetable wastes (VW), on different growth phases of BSF larva (BSFL), using morphometric and scanning electron microscopic examinations, and the composition of the compost produced, as well as a method for upscaling of larval production of BSFL. Faster growth was observed in BSFL fed with VW substrate (40 days) compared to the FW (46 days). Based on the morphometric measurements such as length, larval head length, total length etc., five larval stages, prepupal and pupal stage of BSFL were differentiated and described. In addition, SEM imaging of BSF mouth parts found that the mouth morphology of the BSF larvae and prepupal stage differed, and the BSF prepupa had reduced mouthparts. Also, the mandibular-maxillary complex was well developed than the BSF prepupa. BSFL larvae have proven to convert fruit and vegetable waste into high-quality residue fertilizer for the soil. The BSF compost showed optimum nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, calcium and sulphur content. This research establishes a baseline knowledge and guidance on the BSF-rearing facilities.
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Keywords
Growth phases, Insects, Morphology, Sustainability, Waste management
References
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Babarinde, S. A., Mvumi, B. M., Babarinde, G. O., Manditsera, F. A., Akande, T. O. & Adepoju, A. A. (2020). Insects in food and feed systems in sub-Saharan Africa: The untapped potentials. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 41(3), 1923-1951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-020-00305-6
Barros-Cordeiro, K. B., Báo, S. N. & Pujol-Luz, J. R. (2014). Intra-puparial development of the black soldier-fly, Hermetia illucens. Journal of Insect Science, 14, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.014.83
Beyers, M., Coudron, C., Ravi, R., Meers, E. & Bruun, S. (2023). Black soldier fly larvae as an alternative feed source and agro-waste disposal route – A life cycle perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 192, 106917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106917
Bruno, D., Bonacci, T., Reguzzoni, M., Casartelli, M., Grimaldi, A., Tettamanti, G. & Brandmayr, P. (2020). An in-depth description of head morphology and mouthparts in larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens. Arthropod Structure and Development, 58, 100969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asd.2020.100969
Daniso, E., Melpignano, P. & Tulli, F. (2020). An OLED-based genosensor for the detection of Hermetia illucens in feeds. Food Control, 113, 107179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107179
Diener, S., Studt Solano, N. M., Roa Gutiérrez, F., Zurbrügg, C. & Tockner, K. (2011). Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 2(4), 357–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9079-1
Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C. & Tockner, K. (2009). Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: Establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste Management and Research, 27(6), 603–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09103 838
Dortmans, B., Diener, S., Verstappen, B. & Zurbrügg, C. (2017). Black Soldier Fly Biowaste Processing - A Step-by-Step Guide Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Gligorescu, A., Toft, S., Hauggaard-Nielsen, H., Axelsen, J. A. & Nielsen, S. A. (2019). Development, growth and metabolic rate of Hermetia illucens larvae. Journal of Applied Entomology, 143(8), 875–881. https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12653
Gold, M., Cassar, C. M., Zurbrügg, C., Kreuzer, M., Boulos, S., Diener, S. & Mathys, A. (2020). Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Management, 102, 319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.036
Jucker, C., Erba, D., Leonardi, M. G., Lupi, D. & Savoldelli, S. (2017). Assessment of Vegetable and Fruit Substrates as Potential Rearing Media for Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae. Environmental Entomology, 46(6), 1415–1423. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvx154
Jucker, C., Lupi, D., Moore, C. D., Leonardi, M. G. & Savoldelli, S. (2020). Nutrient recapture from insect farm waste: Bioconversion with Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010362
Kim, W., Bae, S., Park, H., Park, K., Lee, S., Choi, Y., Han, S., & Koh, Y. (2015). The larval age and mouth morphology of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). International Journal of Industrial Entomology, 6(6), 1059–1065.
Lalander, C., Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C. & Vinnerås, B. (2019). Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Journal of Cleaner Production, 208, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.017
Lalander, Cecilia, Diener, S., Magri, M. E., Zurbrügg, C., Lindström, A. & Vinnerås, B. (2013). Faecal sludge management with the larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) - From a hygiene aspect. Science of the Total Environment, 458–460, 312–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.033
Law, Y. & Wein, L. (2018). Reversing the nutrient drain through urban insect farming—opportunities and challenges. AIMS Bioengineering, 5(4), 226–237. https://doi.org/1 0.3934/bioeng.2018.4.226
Lohri, C. R., Diener, S., Zabaleta, I., Mertenat, A. & Zurbrügg, C. (2017). Treatment technologies for urban solid biowaste to create value products: a review with focus on low- and middle-income settings. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 16(1), 81–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9422-5
Marien, A., Debode, F., Aerts, C., Ancion, C., Francis, F. & Berben, G. (2018). Detection of Hermetia illucens by real-time PCR. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 4(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2017.0069
May B. (1961). The occurrence in New Zealand and the life history of the soldier fly Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). New Zealand Journal of Science 4, 55-65
Meneguz, M., Gasco, L. & Tomberlin, J. K. (2018). Impact of pH and feeding system on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. PLoS ONE, 13(8), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.po ne.0202591
Mertenat, A., Diener, S. & Zurbrügg, C. (2019). Black Soldier Fly biowaste treatment – Assessment of global warming potential. Waste Management, 84, 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.040
Nakamura, S., Ichiki, R. T., Shimoda, M. & Morioka, S. (2016). Small-scale rearing of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in the laboratory: low-cost and year-round rearing. Applied Entomology and Zoology, 51(1), 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13355-015-0376-1
Nguyen, T. T. X., Tomberlin, J. K. & Vanlaerhoven, S. (2013). Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. Journal of Medical Entomology, 50(4), 898–906. https://doi.org/10.1603/ME12260
Oliveira, F. R., Doelle, K. & Smith, R. P. 2016. External morphology of Hermetia illucens stratiomyidae: Diptera (L.1758) based on electron microscopy. Annual Research and Review in Biology, 9(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2016/22973
Onsongo, V. O., Osuga, I. M., Gachuiri, C. K., Wachira, A. M., Miano, D. M., Tanga, C. M., Ekesi, S., Nakimbugwe, D. & Fiaboe, K. K. M. (2018). Insects for income generation through animal feed: Effect of dietary replacement of soybean and fish meal with black soldier fly meal on broiler growth and economic performance. Journal of Economic Entomology, 111(4), 1966–1973. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy118
ur Rehman, K., Hollah, C., Wiesotzki, K., ur Rehman, R., ur Rehman A., Zhang, J., Zheng, L., Nienaber, T., Heinz, V. & Aganovic, K. (2023). Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens as a potential innovative and environmentally friendly tool for organic waste management: A mini-review. Waste Management and Research, 41(1), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221105441
Schremmer, F. (1986). Die polymetabole Larval-Entwicklung der Waffenfliegenart Herme- The polymetabol development of the soldier fly larva Hermetia illucens. - A contribution to the Metamorphosis of the Stratiomy- Einführung und Problemstellung Vor 35 Jahren hatte ich neben d. 405–430.
Singh, A. & Kumari, K. (2019). An inclusive approach for organic waste treatment and valorisation using Black Soldier Fly larvae: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 251(April). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.20 19.109569
Sogari, G., Amato, M., Biasato, I., Chiesa, S. & Gasco, L. (2019). The potential role of insects as feed: A multi-perspective review. Animals, 9(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040119
St-Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J. K., Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M. A., Mosley, E. E., Hardy, R. W. & Sealey, W. (2007). Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 38(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x
Tacon, A. G. J., Hasan, M. R. & Metian, M. (2011). Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans : Trends and prospects. In FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper (Vol. 564). http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/ba0002e/ba0002e.pdf
Tran, G., Heuzé, V. & Makkar, H. P. S. (2015). Insects in fish diets. Animal Frontiers, 5(2), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.2527/af.2015-0018
Van Huis, A. ()2013. Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual Review of Entomology, 58, 563–583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704
van Huis, A. & Oonincx, D. G. A. B. (2017). The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0452-8
Widyastuti R. A. D., Rahmat A., Warganegara H. A., Ramadhani W. S., Prasetyo B. & Riantini M. (2021). Chemical content of waste composting by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 739(1), 012003.
Yang, F. & Tomberlin, J. K. (2020). Comparing selected life-history traits of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae produced in industrial and bench-top-sized containers. Journal of Insect Science, 20(5), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieaa113
Yang, M. L. (2022). Research on the Evaluation Mechanism of the Black Soldier Fly Biological System on Campus. Sustainability (Switzerland), 14(7) 4029. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14074029
Barragan-Fonseca, K. B., Dicke, M. & van Loon, J. J. A. (2017). Nutritional value of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens L.) and its suitability as animal feed - A review. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 3(2), 105–120. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2016.0055
Babarinde, S. A., Mvumi, B. M., Babarinde, G. O., Manditsera, F. A., Akande, T. O. & Adepoju, A. A. (2020). Insects in food and feed systems in sub-Saharan Africa: The untapped potentials. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science, 41(3), 1923-1951. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42690-020-00305-6
Barros-Cordeiro, K. B., Báo, S. N. & Pujol-Luz, J. R. (2014). Intra-puparial development of the black soldier-fly, Hermetia illucens. Journal of Insect Science, 14, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1673/031.014.83
Beyers, M., Coudron, C., Ravi, R., Meers, E. & Bruun, S. (2023). Black soldier fly larvae as an alternative feed source and agro-waste disposal route – A life cycle perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 192, 106917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2023.106917
Bruno, D., Bonacci, T., Reguzzoni, M., Casartelli, M., Grimaldi, A., Tettamanti, G. & Brandmayr, P. (2020). An in-depth description of head morphology and mouthparts in larvae of the black soldier fly Hermetia illucens. Arthropod Structure and Development, 58, 100969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asd.2020.100969
Daniso, E., Melpignano, P. & Tulli, F. (2020). An OLED-based genosensor for the detection of Hermetia illucens in feeds. Food Control, 113, 107179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107179
Diener, S., Studt Solano, N. M., Roa Gutiérrez, F., Zurbrügg, C. & Tockner, K. (2011). Biological treatment of municipal organic waste using black soldier fly larvae. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 2(4), 357–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12649-011-9079-1
Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C. & Tockner, K. (2009). Conversion of organic material by black soldier fly larvae: Establishing optimal feeding rates. Waste Management and Research, 27(6), 603–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X09103 838
Dortmans, B., Diener, S., Verstappen, B. & Zurbrügg, C. (2017). Black Soldier Fly Biowaste Processing - A Step-by-Step Guide Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Dübendorf, Switzerland
Gligorescu, A., Toft, S., Hauggaard-Nielsen, H., Axelsen, J. A. & Nielsen, S. A. (2019). Development, growth and metabolic rate of Hermetia illucens larvae. Journal of Applied Entomology, 143(8), 875–881. https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12653
Gold, M., Cassar, C. M., Zurbrügg, C., Kreuzer, M., Boulos, S., Diener, S. & Mathys, A. (2020). Biowaste treatment with black soldier fly larvae: Increasing performance through the formulation of biowastes based on protein and carbohydrates. Waste Management, 102, 319–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.10.036
Jucker, C., Erba, D., Leonardi, M. G., Lupi, D. & Savoldelli, S. (2017). Assessment of Vegetable and Fruit Substrates as Potential Rearing Media for Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae. Environmental Entomology, 46(6), 1415–1423. https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/nvx154
Jucker, C., Lupi, D., Moore, C. D., Leonardi, M. G. & Savoldelli, S. (2020). Nutrient recapture from insect farm waste: Bioconversion with Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). Sustainability (Switzerland), 12(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010362
Kim, W., Bae, S., Park, H., Park, K., Lee, S., Choi, Y., Han, S., & Koh, Y. (2015). The larval age and mouth morphology of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). International Journal of Industrial Entomology, 6(6), 1059–1065.
Lalander, C., Diener, S., Zurbrügg, C. & Vinnerås, B. (2019). Effects of feedstock on larval development and process efficiency in waste treatment with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). Journal of Cleaner Production, 208, 211–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.10.017
Lalander, Cecilia, Diener, S., Magri, M. E., Zurbrügg, C., Lindström, A. & Vinnerås, B. (2013). Faecal sludge management with the larvae of the black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) - From a hygiene aspect. Science of the Total Environment, 458–460, 312–318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.04.033
Law, Y. & Wein, L. (2018). Reversing the nutrient drain through urban insect farming—opportunities and challenges. AIMS Bioengineering, 5(4), 226–237. https://doi.org/1 0.3934/bioeng.2018.4.226
Lohri, C. R., Diener, S., Zabaleta, I., Mertenat, A. & Zurbrügg, C. (2017). Treatment technologies for urban solid biowaste to create value products: a review with focus on low- and middle-income settings. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology, 16(1), 81–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9422-5
Marien, A., Debode, F., Aerts, C., Ancion, C., Francis, F. & Berben, G. (2018). Detection of Hermetia illucens by real-time PCR. Journal of Insects as Food and Feed, 4(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.3920/JIFF2017.0069
May B. (1961). The occurrence in New Zealand and the life history of the soldier fly Hermetia illucens (L.) (Diptera: Stratiomyidae). New Zealand Journal of Science 4, 55-65
Meneguz, M., Gasco, L. & Tomberlin, J. K. (2018). Impact of pH and feeding system on black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, L; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. PLoS ONE, 13(8), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.po ne.0202591
Mertenat, A., Diener, S. & Zurbrügg, C. (2019). Black Soldier Fly biowaste treatment – Assessment of global warming potential. Waste Management, 84, 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.11.040
Nakamura, S., Ichiki, R. T., Shimoda, M. & Morioka, S. (2016). Small-scale rearing of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in the laboratory: low-cost and year-round rearing. Applied Entomology and Zoology, 51(1), 161–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13355-015-0376-1
Nguyen, T. T. X., Tomberlin, J. K. & Vanlaerhoven, S. (2013). Influence of resources on Hermetia illucens. (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) larval development. Journal of Medical Entomology, 50(4), 898–906. https://doi.org/10.1603/ME12260
Oliveira, F. R., Doelle, K. & Smith, R. P. 2016. External morphology of Hermetia illucens stratiomyidae: Diptera (L.1758) based on electron microscopy. Annual Research and Review in Biology, 9(5), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.9734/ARRB/2016/22973
Onsongo, V. O., Osuga, I. M., Gachuiri, C. K., Wachira, A. M., Miano, D. M., Tanga, C. M., Ekesi, S., Nakimbugwe, D. & Fiaboe, K. K. M. (2018). Insects for income generation through animal feed: Effect of dietary replacement of soybean and fish meal with black soldier fly meal on broiler growth and economic performance. Journal of Economic Entomology, 111(4), 1966–1973. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toy118
ur Rehman, K., Hollah, C., Wiesotzki, K., ur Rehman, R., ur Rehman A., Zhang, J., Zheng, L., Nienaber, T., Heinz, V. & Aganovic, K. (2023). Black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens as a potential innovative and environmentally friendly tool for organic waste management: A mini-review. Waste Management and Research, 41(1), 81-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X221105441
Schremmer, F. (1986). Die polymetabole Larval-Entwicklung der Waffenfliegenart Herme- The polymetabol development of the soldier fly larva Hermetia illucens. - A contribution to the Metamorphosis of the Stratiomy- Einführung und Problemstellung Vor 35 Jahren hatte ich neben d. 405–430.
Singh, A. & Kumari, K. (2019). An inclusive approach for organic waste treatment and valorisation using Black Soldier Fly larvae: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 251(April). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.20 19.109569
Sogari, G., Amato, M., Biasato, I., Chiesa, S. & Gasco, L. (2019). The potential role of insects as feed: A multi-perspective review. Animals, 9(4), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9040119
St-Hilaire, S., Sheppard, C., Tomberlin, J. K., Irving, S., Newton, L., McGuire, M. A., Mosley, E. E., Hardy, R. W. & Sealey, W. (2007). Fly prepupae as a feedstuff for rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 38(1), 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-7345.2006.00073.x
Tacon, A. G. J., Hasan, M. R. & Metian, M. (2011). Demand and supply of feed ingredients for farmed fish and crustaceans : Trends and prospects. In FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper (Vol. 564). http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/ba0002e/ba0002e.pdf
Tran, G., Heuzé, V. & Makkar, H. P. S. (2015). Insects in fish diets. Animal Frontiers, 5(2), 37–44. https://doi.org/10.2527/af.2015-0018
Van Huis, A. ()2013. Potential of insects as food and feed in assuring food security. Annual Review of Entomology, 58, 563–583. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153704
van Huis, A. & Oonincx, D. G. A. B. (2017). The environmental sustainability of insects as food and feed. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 37, 43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0452-8
Widyastuti R. A. D., Rahmat A., Warganegara H. A., Ramadhani W. S., Prasetyo B. & Riantini M. (2021). Chemical content of waste composting by black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens). IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 739(1), 012003.
Yang, F. & Tomberlin, J. K. (2020). Comparing selected life-history traits of black soldier fly (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae produced in industrial and bench-top-sized containers. Journal of Insect Science, 20(5), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieaa113
Yang, M. L. (2022). Research on the Evaluation Mechanism of the Black Soldier Fly Biological System on Campus. Sustainability (Switzerland), 14(7) 4029. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14074029
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How to Cite
Influence of agricultural wastes on larval growth phases of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae): An integrated approach. (2023). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 15(2), 860-869. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v15i2.4656
