Anti-putrefying properties of the aqueous extract of fresh leaves of Manihot esculenta (cassava) on dead laboratory Sprague Dawley rats
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Abstract
The leaves of Manihot esculenta (ME) have been used by ancestors, apart from food, to preserve human bodies before burial. Formalin remains the chemical agent of choice in modern times to preserve corpses. However, cost, associated health hazards and recent public health concerns meant that researchers must explore alternative means of continuing this age-long process of preservation of human remains. The present study aimed to explore the effectiveness of extracts from cassava (Manihot esculenta) leaves in the preservation of dead remains of corpses. Aqueous extracts from fresh leaves of M. esculenta (MELE) were used to preserve euthanised rats and the internal organs were harvested after 7 days for histological analysis. The histological sections of the stomach and liver were compared with those of control rats treated with 6 ml of formalin (10%). The low and intermediate doses of MELE preserved the tissues of the dead rats beyond 7 days, as evidenced by histological sections of the stomach and liver. Concentrations of MELE between 300 mg/kg and 1500 mg/kg showed adequate potency in preserving dead rats compared to formalin. However, the dead rats treated with doses of MELE greater than 1500 mg/kg showed rapid putrefaction after 7 days.
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Keywords
Decomposition, Embalming, Putrefaction, Preservation, Manihot esculenta
References
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Chinnadurai, V., Viswanathan, P., Kalimuthu, K., Vanitha, A., Ranjitha, V. & Pugazhendhi, A. (2019). Comparative studies of phytochemical analysis and pharmacological activities of wild and micropropagated plant ethanol extracts of Manihot esculenta. Biocat. and Agric. Biotech. 19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101166
Clemen-Pascual, L. M., Macahig, R. A. S. & Rojas, N. R. L. (2022). Comparative toxicity, phytochemistry, and use of 53 Philippine medicinal plants. Toxicol. Reports, 9, 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.12.002.
Demers, G., Griffin, G., De Vroey, G., Haywood, J. R., Zurlo, J. & Bédard, M. (2006). Harmonization of animal care and use guidance. science, 312(5774), 700-701. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1124036.
Dube, S., Matsinha, L. C., Makhubela, B. C. & Ambushe, A. A. (2022). Investigating cyanogen rich Manihot esculenta efficacy for Ru phytomining and application in catalytic reactions. RSC Adv. 12(2), 1165-1176. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA06647A
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Mustarichie, R., Sulistyaningsih, S. & Runadi, D. (2020). Antibacterial activity test of extracts and fractions of cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes causing acne. Int. J of microbiol. 2020. Article ID 1975904 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1975904
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Pisano, M. B., Cosentino, S., Viale, S., Spanò, D., Corona, A., Esposito, F., Tramontano, E., Montoro, P., Tuberoso, C. I. G. & Medda, R. (2016). Biological activities of aerial parts extracts of Euphorbia characias. BioMed Res. Int. 2016. Article ID 1538703 | https://doi.org/10.1155/20 16/1538703
Ramaswamy, A. S. & Dayasagar, P. (2017). A Study of Xylene Free Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining Procedure. Ann. of Adv. Med. Sci. 1(1), 17-21. DOI: 10.21276/AAM S.1772
Reddy, R., Iyer, S., Pillay, M., Thankappan, K. & Ramu, J. (2017). Soft embalming of cadavers for training purposes: Optimising for long-term use in tropical weather. Ind. J. of Plastic Surg. 50(01), 029-034. DOI: 10.4103/ijps.IJPS_219_16
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Roy, D., Tomo, S., Purohit, P. & Setia, P. (2021). Microbiome in death and beyond: current vistas and future trends. Front. in Ecol. and Evol. 9, 630397.
Șachir, E. E., Pușcașu, C. G., Caraiane, A., Raftu, G., Badea, F. C., Mociu, M., Albu, C. M., Sachelarie, L., Hurjui, L. L. & Bartok-Nicolae, C. (2022). Studies Regarding the Antibacterial Effect of Plant Extracts Obtained from Epilobium parviflorum Schreb. Appl. Sci. 12(5), 2751https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052751
Shami, A.M. M., Philip, K. & Muniandy, S. (2013). Synergy of antibacterial and antioxidant activities from crude extracts and peptides of selected plant mixture. BMC compl. and alt. med. 13(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-13-360.
Shigaki, T. (2016). Cassava: the nature and uses. (2016): Biology, 687-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00124-0.
Tao, H., Cui, B., Zhang, H., Bekhit, A. E.D. & Lu, F. (2019). Identification and characterization of flavonoids compounds in cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) by HPLC/FTICR-MS. Int. J. of food prop. 22(1), 1134-1145. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2019.1626879.
Waheed, K., Muhammad, S., Shomaila, A., Muhammad, Z., Izhar, U. & Ullah, S. (2020).Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of Euphorbia helioscopia. Planta daninha, 38. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358202038 0100011
Zakaria, Z., Khairi, H., Somchit, M., Sulaiman, M., Mat Jais, A., Reezal, I., Mat Zaid, N., Abdul Wahab, S., Fadzil, N. & Abdullah, M. (2006). The in vitro antibacterial activity and brine shrimp toxicity of Manihot esculenta var. Sri Pontian extracts. Int. J. Pharmacol, 2, 216-220. https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ijp.2006.216.220.
Asare-donkor, N. K., Appiah, J. K., Torve, V., Voegborlo, R. B. & Adimado, A. A. (2020).Formaldehyde exposure and its potential health risk in some beauty salons in Kumasi metropolis. J. of Toxicol., Article ID 8875167, 10 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8875167
Brenner, E. (2014). Human body preservation - old and new techniques. Journal of Anatomy,224 (3) 316–344. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12160
Asiedu-Gyekye, I. J., Mahmood, S. A., Awortwe, C. & Nyarko, A. K. (2014). A preliminary safety evaluation of polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride. Int. J. of Toxicol. 33(6), 523-531. DOI: 10.1177/109158181455 3036
Chaiareekitwat, S., Latif, S., Mahayothee, B., Khuwijitjaru, P., Nagle, M., Amawan, S. & Müller, J. (2022). Protein composition, chlorophyll, carotenoids, and cyanide content of cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) as influenced by cultivar, plant age, and leaf position. Food Chem. 372, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131173.
Chinnadurai, V., Viswanathan, P., Kalimuthu, K., Vanitha, A., Ranjitha, V. & Pugazhendhi, A. (2019). Comparative studies of phytochemical analysis and pharmacological activities of wild and micropropagated plant ethanol extracts of Manihot esculenta. Biocat. and Agric. Biotech. 19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2019.101166
Clemen-Pascual, L. M., Macahig, R. A. S. & Rojas, N. R. L. (2022). Comparative toxicity, phytochemistry, and use of 53 Philippine medicinal plants. Toxicol. Reports, 9, 22-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.12.002.
Demers, G., Griffin, G., De Vroey, G., Haywood, J. R., Zurlo, J. & Bédard, M. (2006). Harmonization of animal care and use guidance. science, 312(5774), 700-701. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1124036.
Dube, S., Matsinha, L. C., Makhubela, B. C. & Ambushe, A. A. (2022). Investigating cyanogen rich Manihot esculenta efficacy for Ru phytomining and application in catalytic reactions. RSC Adv. 12(2), 1165-1176. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA06647A
Hyde, E. R., Haarmann, D. P., Lynne, A. M., Bucheli, S. R., & Petrosino, J. F. (2013). The living dead: bacterial community structure of a cadaver at the onset and end of the bloat stage of decomposition. PLoS One, 8(10), e77733.
Kawanishi, M., Matsuda, T. & Yagi, T. (2014). Genotoxicity of formaldehyde: molecular basis of DNA damage and mutation. Front. in Env. Sc. 2, 36.(2) https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2014.00036
Kirbag, S., Erecevit, P., Zengin, F. & Guvenc, A. N. (2013). Antimicrobial activities of some Euphorbia species. Afr. J. of Trad., Compl. and Alt. Med., 10(5), 305-309. https://doi.org/10.4314/ajtcam.v10i5.13
Lima, Z. M., da Trindade, L. S., Santana, G. C., Padilha, F. F., da Costa Mendonça, M., da Costa, L. P., López, J. A. & Macedo, M. L. H. (2017). Effect of Tamarindus indica L. and Manihot esculenta extracts on antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Pharmacog. Res. 9(2), 195. https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0974-8490.204648
Mandal, J., & Parija, S. C. (2013). Ethics of involving animals in research. Trop. parasitoL., 3(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.41032229-5070.113884
Mustarichie, R., Sulistyaningsih, S. & Runadi, D. (2020). Antibacterial activity test of extracts and fractions of cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) against clinical isolates of Staphylococcus epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes causing acne. Int. J of microbiol. 2020. Article ID 1975904 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1975904
N’guessan, B. B., Twumasi-Ankrah, J. S., Amponsah, S. K., Adams, I., Poakwah, A. K. K., Brown, C., Adinortey, M. B., Sarkodie, J. A., Adi-Dako, O. & Asiedu-Gyekye, I. J. (2022). Effect of Metaswitch® dietary supplement on anthropometric parameters, serum lipids, glucose level, oxidative stress and in vivo antioxidant properties in high fat diet-induced overweight Sprague Dawley rats. Biomed. & Pharmacother. 149, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.20 22.112892
Pisano, M. B., Cosentino, S., Viale, S., Spanò, D., Corona, A., Esposito, F., Tramontano, E., Montoro, P., Tuberoso, C. I. G. & Medda, R. (2016). Biological activities of aerial parts extracts of Euphorbia characias. BioMed Res. Int. 2016. Article ID 1538703 | https://doi.org/10.1155/20 16/1538703
Ramaswamy, A. S. & Dayasagar, P. (2017). A Study of Xylene Free Hematoxylin and Eosin Staining Procedure. Ann. of Adv. Med. Sci. 1(1), 17-21. DOI: 10.21276/AAM S.1772
Reddy, R., Iyer, S., Pillay, M., Thankappan, K. & Ramu, J. (2017). Soft embalming of cadavers for training purposes: Optimising for long-term use in tropical weather. Ind. J. of Plastic Surg. 50(01), 029-034. DOI: 10.4103/ijps.IJPS_219_16
Rocha, P., Gargabite, B., & Jacob, J. (2022).Phytochemical screening of indigenous plants utilized by the Agta community in Aurora, Philippines. Int. J. of Agric. Tech. 18(2):771-778 Available online http://www.ijat-aatsea.com ISSN 2630-0192.
Roy, D., Tomo, S., Purohit, P. & Setia, P. (2021). Microbiome in death and beyond: current vistas and future trends. Front. in Ecol. and Evol. 9, 630397.
Șachir, E. E., Pușcașu, C. G., Caraiane, A., Raftu, G., Badea, F. C., Mociu, M., Albu, C. M., Sachelarie, L., Hurjui, L. L. & Bartok-Nicolae, C. (2022). Studies Regarding the Antibacterial Effect of Plant Extracts Obtained from Epilobium parviflorum Schreb. Appl. Sci. 12(5), 2751https://doi.org/10.3390/app12052751
Shami, A.M. M., Philip, K. & Muniandy, S. (2013). Synergy of antibacterial and antioxidant activities from crude extracts and peptides of selected plant mixture. BMC compl. and alt. med. 13(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-13-360.
Shigaki, T. (2016). Cassava: the nature and uses. (2016): Biology, 687-693. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00124-0.
Tao, H., Cui, B., Zhang, H., Bekhit, A. E.D. & Lu, F. (2019). Identification and characterization of flavonoids compounds in cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta Crantz) by HPLC/FTICR-MS. Int. J. of food prop. 22(1), 1134-1145. https://doi.org/10.1080/10942912.2019.1626879.
Waheed, K., Muhammad, S., Shomaila, A., Muhammad, Z., Izhar, U. & Ullah, S. (2020).Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of Euphorbia helioscopia. Planta daninha, 38. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-8358202038 0100011
Zakaria, Z., Khairi, H., Somchit, M., Sulaiman, M., Mat Jais, A., Reezal, I., Mat Zaid, N., Abdul Wahab, S., Fadzil, N. & Abdullah, M. (2006). The in vitro antibacterial activity and brine shrimp toxicity of Manihot esculenta var. Sri Pontian extracts. Int. J. Pharmacol, 2, 216-220. https://dx.doi.org/10.3923/ijp.2006.216.220.
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Anti-putrefying properties of the aqueous extract of fresh leaves of Manihot esculenta (cassava) on dead laboratory Sprague Dawley rats. (2023). Journal of Applied and Natural Science, 15(1), 435-442. https://doi.org/10.31018/jans.v15i1.4361
